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INDUSTRIAL WORK 
FOR BOYS 



A.E. PICKARD 




ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL SERIES 





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Class __/__J/^<? 
Book_ 



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CflPHRIGHT DEPOSfli 



Industrial \^rk for Boys 

a/ev pickard 

President, Collegiate Institute, Minneapolis; formerly Superintendent 

of Associated Schools, Cokato, Minnesota; author of "Rural 

Education," "Industrial Booklets" and 

"Industrial Work for Girls" 



ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL SERIES 



WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 

ST. PAUL, MINN. 

1916 



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COPYRIGHT. 1916 

BY 

WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
W-1 



m 15 1917 

©CI,A455150 



PREFACE 

For several reasons, industrial work should not be left 
for the high school grades exclusively. First, comparatively 
few reach the high school. Second, it is as necessary to 
have early training in this phase of education as in any 
other, if the student is to do his best in the advanced work 
of the high school. Again, experience proves that the in- 
dustrial work offered in the grades creates interest and 
enjoyment in the pupils and is a means of retaining more 
pupils in school much longer than the average time of 
attendance in schools not offering such work. Finally, a 
study of the industries of a great commercial nation, such 
as ours, is of vital importance to the future welfare of the 
country, and cannot begin too early. 

The work suggested in this little book has been done 
successfully for a number of years in the teachers' training 
department, in the intermediate and upper grades and in 
the rural schools that were under the supervision of the 
author. At the annual exhibit of fifteen associated rural 
schools practically all the work here outlined has been 
shown. 

Any of the elementary work that the students already 
have had may be omitted. Boys who are taking the 
work for the first time, however, should do the work in 
weaving, both paper and rug, as well as basketry and other 
work before attempting the rope work and woodwork. 
The teacher should have several industrial books for refer- 
ence, from w^hich occasionally supplementary exercises may 
be given. The 'Tarm and Business Accounts" should be 
expanded and used as the basis for much of the work in 



\^-i4bJ'i 



6 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

the upper arithmetic classes. A home credit plan should 
be adopted and the students encouraged to do some of the 
home projects during the school year as well as in the sum- 
mer. Naturall}^, more can be done in some schools than 
in others, but all can do some industrial work; and, if the 
students are allowed some form of credit for what is done 
at home, most of this course can be completed. The teacher 
will find a discussion of the industrial course of study in 
the author's ''Rural Education." Teachers who are not 
familiar with the Division Plan of conducting the classes 
should use that book as a reference. 

Several persons materially assisted the author in the 
preparation of this book. Mr. J. B. Frear, formerly 
instructor in farm mechanics at the Minnesota College of 
Agriculture, kindly gave permission to use material from 
Minnesota Bulletin Number 136. The photographs of rope 
work were made especially for the author by Mr. J. T. 
Horton, station photographer, by special arrangement with 
the Minnesota College of Agriculture. Especial thanks are 
due Mr. A. H. Carlson, head of, the Industrial Department, 
Rushford, Minnesota, and Mr. L. E. Stockwell, head of 
the Department of Manual Training, Cokato, Minnesota, 
for valuable assistance in the preparation of the projects in 
woodwork. Also to Supt. R. H. Blankenship, of Pine 
County, Minnesota, one of the pioneer advocates of indus- 
trial work in rural schools. State and federal bulletins as 
well as industrial periodicals were consulted for some of the 
projects given. 

A. E. PiCKARD. 

December, 1916. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I Course and Equipment 9 

Purpose of Industrial Work, Preliminary Industrial Work, 
Second and Third Division Work. 

n General Industrial Work 19 

School Exercises in Weaving, Paper Folding and Construc- 
tion, Raffia and Rattan Work, Modeling. 

in Rope Work and Belt Lacing 33 

Whipping, Crowning, Splicing, Making Knots, Rope Halters, 
Block and Tackle Reeving, Lacing Three-inch and Six-inch 
Belts. 

IV Woodwork at School 47 

Equipment, Alanual Training Exercises. 

V Home Projects in Woodwork 73 

Equipment, Home Credit Projects, including the Making 
of a Workbench, Folding Ironing Table, Stepladder, Chicken 
Coop, Stock Rack, Wagon Box, Farm Gate and Road Drag. 

VI Projects in Cement and Iron 94 

Making Concrete Walks, Floors, Posts and Building Blocks; 
Iron Work, Care of Forge, Methods of Heating, Projects 
in Forging. 

VII Home Credit Work in Agriculture 106 

Soil Study, Rotation of Crops, Germination Tests, Garden 
Work, Weed Collection, Insect Collection, Collection of 
Woods, Study of Birds and Rodents, Stud}^ of Machinery, 
Stock and Grain Judging, Tree Grafting, Strawberry Raising. 

Vm Contests and Club Work 124 

Acre-yield Corn Plot, Potato Yield Contest, Tomato Con- 
test, Canning as Club Work, Poultry Contest, Pig Contest, 
Savings Banks, Keeping Accounts, Industrial Exhibit. 

7 



Industrial Work for Boys 



CHAPTER I 
COURSE AND EQUIPMENT 

It is hoped that the exercises in industrial work here 
given may be the means of. causing some boys to "find 
themselves." As soon as the value of the work becomes 
recognized, the boys will appreciate it and will do the exer- 
cises with enthusiasm. No other kind of work is more useful 
or more elevating. Collateral information should be sought 
and given. For example, where do raffia and rattan grow 
and what are they used for in the industries? Where do 
twine and rope come from and how are they made? What 
kinds of woods in this country are used in manufacturing 
and what is the value of each kind for special purposes? 

No young man is truly educated unless he knows some- 
thing about the industries of his country. The suggestions 
here given should be carried out as fully as possible. The 
pupil will thus become much better informed than the mere 
"bookworm," and will realize that work with the hands is 
as honorable as work with the head. 

The elementary work of the first few pages must not 
be underestimated. It is worth while, and the students who 
are best in it will nearly always become the most proficient 
in the rope and bench work. Mature college students often 
do this simple work and find it interesting and useful. 

It should be planned to do as much of the "home proj- 
ect" work as possible. If the student is not fortunate 



10 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

enough to have a shop at home, he can at least have a bench, 
which he himself can make. The bench can be housed in 
a shed or other building until a permanent shop can be 
fitted up. 

PURPOSE OF INDUSTRIAL WORK 

A noted educator says this of industrial work: "As 
far as it neglects industry, the school falls short of its pur- 
pose. Industry is among the departments of civilization 
about which everybody should know something. Social 
efficienc}^, too, depends upon knowledge; for without some 
acquaintance with industrial affairs even those who are 
engaged in other pursuits are handicapped. They cannot 
intelligently co-operate with work which they know nothing 
about." 

Industrial training in the elementary schools has been 
too much of the hit-or-miss kind. There has been no stand- 
ard course of study to follow, and resourceful teachers 
have been able to conduct the work only on account of 
their own training and interest in it. Only two extremes 
could be expected under such circumstances — talking about 
industrial work without doing it, and making unrelated 
articles without instruction. 

The time given to industrial work must depend upon 
local circumstances. At least two hours a week should be 
devoted to it, and more if possible. The school should be 
divided into either two or three divisions for this work. 
The ^'Division Plan," discussed at length in ''Rural Edu- 
cation," divides the usual eight grades into the First 
Division, the Second Division, and tlie Third Division. 
The First Division includes the first three grades; the 
Second Division includes grades four to six inclusive; and 
the Third Division is made up of the seventh and eighth 



COURSE AND EQUIPMENT 



11 



grades. Probably a better plan is to have but seven 
grades in the rural school curriculum. In that event, the 
Second Division will include only the fourth and fifth 
grades, and the Third Division, the sixth and seventh. 

The suppli^ needed will naturally depend upon the 
size of the school and the time given to industrial work. 
From five to fifteen dollars' worth will be enough for the 
general industrial work. The industrial and sewing ma- 
terials of the advanced division should be paid for by the 
students. A suggestive list of materials with prices is 
given. They may be purchased from a school supply house. 

For the First Division, paper weaving materials are 
needed. These may be purchased in packages in various 
sizes, with slits one fourth, one third, and one half inch wide, 
at about a cent for each mat. All the standard colors may 
be obtained. Colored sheets should be purchased and 




Figure 



Preparing and assorting material for industrial work 
rural associated schools. 



12 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

strips cut with the scissors for more advanced weaving after 
the ready-made mats have been put together. Papers 
for folding and cutting may be purchased at fifteen to 
twenty cents a hundred squares, usually four by four inches. 
Looms may be made or purchased. Hammock looms 
are easily made by cutting heavy cardboard to the de- 
sired size, rounding the ends, and cutting notches in them 
for the fastening of the warp. These are inexpensive and 
are just as good as those that are purchased. Looms for 
rug weaving may easily be made in the school, if the stu- 
dents have manual training. A loom that retails for thirty 
cents may be made for from three to six cents for the ma- 
terial. Use oak one fourth of an inch thick. Pine or bass- 
wood will do. The two endpieces are each ten inches long 
and one and one fourth inches wide. Place the two end- 
pieces together side to side and make a series of cross 
notches from end to end by sawing their edges a quarter 
of an inch deep and a quarter of an inch apart. In these 
notclies the warp is fastened for weaving. The ends are 
fastened apart with two sidepieces twelve inches long 
and three quarters of an inch wide. These are fastened 
by sawing a slit in the ends of the endpieces, so that 
the sidepieces will just fit flatwise. They are then nailed 
and glued. Holes are bored in the ends for the heavy 
wire to make the loom adjustable in width. These wires 
are copper, three sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and 
may be bought at any hardware store. They 
should be cut fourteen inches long and have a loop 
made in one end for a handle. A wooden crosspiece 
similar to one of the ends may be made to slide along the 
sidepieces. This will enable one to make the loom adjust- 
able in length as well as in width. Flat wooden needles 
made from quarter-inch basswood, rounded off at one 



COURSE AND EQUIPMENT U 

end, and a hole bored in the other for threading the ma- 
terial, can be made very easily, and they are better than 
the metal needles for the most of the weaving. . These 
should be sandpapered down until they are a little less than 
one eighth of an inch thick, a half inch wide and about 
ten inches long. With such a needle, the material may 
be drawn through the entire width of the rug at one time. 
Metal needles are needed for finishing the rugs and for work- 
ing patterns. See Figure 7. 

Rug materials are few or numerous as one desires. Col- 
ored rags from home are as good as anything for the prac- 
tice work and cost nothing. They should be cut or torn 
into suitable lengths and widths. Roving is a very coarse 
weaving material, excellent for beginners, and may be 
purchased in colors at about seventy cents a pound. It 
should precede the finer materials. Carpet yarn may be 
obtained at about sixty cents a pound. Jute makes cheaper 
weaving material at from twenty-five to thirty cents a pound. 
Chenille, plain and mottled, is good for pattern work or 
for the entire rug. It costs about sixty cents a pound. 
Macrame cord comes in balls, any color, and costs about 
fifteen cents a ball. It is used principally for hammock 
making, but is rather expensive. For practice, rugs may 
be made out of rags, raffia, or even corn husks, and save 
the expensive materials for exhibit work. All these ma- 
terials are used for the woof of rugs and hammocks. For 
the warp to "thread" the looms, carpet warp may be pur- 
chased in colors at about fift}^ cents a pound. Brass rings 
for hammocks will cost about two cents a pair for the inch 
size. Smaller ones ma}^ be used, if desired. Germantown 
yarn is beautiful for knitting caps, bonnets, mittens, leggings, 
etc., but is rather expensive for rugs. It costs about fifteen 
cents a skein. 



14 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

Basketry and raffia supplies may be furnished by the 
school or purchased by the students, as desired. Plain 
raffia costs from fifteen to eighteen cents a pound, and 
colored, from forty to fifty cents. Rattan, or round reeds, 
will cost from thirty-five to eighty-five cents, depending 
upon the size. The medium sizes are used most, but the 
teacher should order by sending samples of the sizes de- 
sired. Flat reed for napkin rings and basketry costs about 
fifty cents a pound. Raffia and rattan may be dyed, if 
desired; but it is rather hard to get uniform tints unless 
one has had practice. The finished baskets and trays 
should be shellacked as soon as they are made. 

Clay for modeling comes in three forms — the flour, in 
bricks, and moist in barrels. The flour may be obtained 
in five-pound boxes at five cents a pound. The bricks are 
usually five pounds each and cost the same as the flour. 
Moist clay is a little cheaper when purchased in barrel 
lots. Some communities have near at hand clay that is 
good for this work, and costs only the labor of getting it. 

PRELIMINARY INDUSTRIAL WORK 

Those pupils who have not had the industrial work of 
the lower grades should learn the principles of weaving 
some raffia and rattan work, and do a little modeling with 
clay. A few simple exercises are given, the material for 
which should be furnished by the school. The students 
should make the looms, using paper for the Germantown 
yarn and hammock work, and wood for the rugs. Have a 
brush and shellac for the baskets and trays. 

Paper folding and construction may precede or follow 
the paper weaving. A ruler, pencil, pair of scissors and 
paste are needed. Make envelopes and boxes for seed and 
other collections in agriculture. Other objects from which 



COURSE AXD EQUIPMENT 



15 



a selection may be made are as follows : Small basket, 
doll's furniture, sled, Indian canoe, Puritan cradle, shaving 
ball or pad, needlebook, match scratcher, Christmas bells, 
windmill. May basket, carriage, house, barn, chicken-coop, 
picture-frame, bookmark, fan, Chinese lantern, circular 
marker, hexagonal box, blotting-pad, calendar, valentine, 
button box, tent, card and photograph holders, screen, 
flower holder, whisk-broom holder and pocket comb holder. 
The materials for these are common manila drawing paper, 
oak tag, cover paper and colored construction papers. 

Weaving is usually be- 
gun with paper strips and 
readymade mats, as given 
under materials for indus- 
trial work. Paper weaving 
may be followed by basket 
weaving with heavy fold- 
ing paper, and by the 
weaving of bookmarks, 
pencil trays, mats, boxes, 
napkin rings, match safes, 
pincushions, blotters, cal- 
endars and thermometer 
backs. After paper weav- 
ing, loom work should be 
given. Rugs of rags, roving, yarn, jute, chenille, raffia and 
other materials are made. Bed blankets and draperies for 
a doll's house may be woven. Hammocks, made of macrame 
cord on homemade cardboard looms, may be hung outside 
the doll house. Doll caps, mittens, and leggings may be 
made of Germantown yarn on the loom and sewed to shape. 
See Figure 2. 




Figure 2. Germantown yarn work, showing 
caps, sweaters and leggings. 



16 



INDUSTRIAL ^yORK FOR BOYS 




Figure 3. Making rattan trays and baskets on the school grounds. 



Raffia and rattan work should largely be done in the in- 
termediate and advanced divisions. Raffia rugs, napkin 
rings, picture frames of cardboard wound in raffia, and raffia 
baskets may be attempted in the primary division. 

Modeling is always of interest and its educational value 
is evident. A piece of oilcloth or a square board should 
protect the desk. When clay is used it should be prepared 
the day before. The children, of course, must be able to 
wash their hands after the work. Encourage outside work 
and ask the children to bring their products to school to 
show the others. Modeling is especially valuable in train- 
ing both hands at the same time. Begin with forms from 
life, as animals and plants, rather than with geometrical 
forms. Later the latter should be given, and the ball, 
apple, peach, pear, orange, banana and other similar objects 
modeled. A bird's nest and eggg, marbles, clay baskets, 
beads and ornamental vases are some of the popular pieces. 
It is well to have in mind the following general divisions of 
the subject: 1. ModeUng from objects present at the 
time. 2. Modeling from memory. 3. Modeling from 



COURSE AND EQUIPMENT 17 

imagination. 4. Design in modeling. Fruit modeling 
may be shaded with water colors and, when dry, given 
a coat of shellac which gives a very natural effect, if well 
done. Other objects may be colored in a similar manner. 

SECOND AND THIRD DIVISION WORK 

The general industrial work of these divisions should be 
raffia and rattan w^eaving, basketry and rope work. The 
objects made may be varied. If manual training is 
given in these divisions, there will not be much time left. 
A little basketry, however, and rope work should be 
given sometime during the course. Napkin rings of rat- 
tan and flat reed, baskets of raffia and rattan, collar boxes 
of rattan wound and fastened with raffia, serving trays 
of rattan with a wooden bottom, wastebaskets of heavy 
rattan and knots and splices iu rope work, are all useful 
and practical lessons. The rattan work should be given a 
coat of shellac as soon as finished. 

Reference books are necessary for the best results in 
industrial work. It is impossible to give directions for 
making of many of the articles suggested here, as space will 
not permit. The authors have found the following list of 
books almost indispensable: Paper Sloyd for Primary 
Grades, by Rich; Industrial Work for Public Schools, by 
Holton and Rollins; Hand Loom Weaving by Todd; Card- 
board Construction, by Trybom; Hand Work, by Hoxie; 
Raffia and Reed Weaving, by Knapp; Clay Modeling, by 
Holland; and How to Make Baskets, by White. Bulle- 
tins on industrial work may be obtained free from many of 
the agricultural colleges. 

Industrial work and geography should be correlated to 
the extent that the students should know where all the 
materials used come from and how they are used in the 

2— 



18 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

industries. Raffia is a light yellow material that is shred- 
ded off from the bark of a certain palm tree. Most of ours 
comes from the island of Madagascar. On account of its 
pliability and toughness, raffia is much used for industrial 
work and also for rope making in the industries. Rattan 
is a kind of a palm that grows in the East Indies. It is 
peculiar in that it sometimes reaches one thousand feet 
in length, and is supported by neighboring trees. It grows 
in various sizes, but is seldom more than an inch in diam- 
eter. There are very few branches, sometimes none for 
two or three hundred feet. The different species are very 
useful in their native countries for plaited work, rope mak- 
ing, etc. Rattan is twisted into ropes and used for pur- 
poses requiring great strength. In this country it is used 
for basketry, rustic furniture making, etc. Jute is made 
from the inner bark of a tall annual plant native to the 
East Indies, but now grown in several countries for com- 
mercial purposes. The fiber is used for making carpet, 
canvas and rope. 

Directions for making a few forms of industrial work are 
given for those who have no other books, but as many 
reference books on industrial work as the school can afford 
should be in the library. 



CHAPTER II 

GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 

Students desiring to do industrial work out of school for 
"home credit" should consult with the teacher regarding 
objects to be made. Try to develop originality. The fol- 
lowing are school exercises: 

1 — Single Paper Weaving 

Materials: Manila drawing paper for practice. Later, 
use colored papers for a variety. 

Directions: Use a square of any desired size from four 
to eight inches. Fold the bottom over to the top. With 





iWA't 



1 1 1 1 1 1 



Figure 4. Paper weaving. Note different designs. 

a ruler and pencil make lines one half inch apart, beginning 
one inch from the left side and ending one inch from the 
right side. The hues should run to the folded edge of the 
paper, but end just one inch from the upper edge. With 
the scissors cut along the Hnes. Open the paper. It will 
then be cut into slits one half inch apart. Cut another 
piece of paper into strips one half inch wide and as long as 
the square just used. Weave the first strip over one and 
under the next strip in the square. Weave the second strip 

19 



20 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOY.S 

in the same way except that you weave under where you 
wove over in the first strip. Continue until all the strips 
are woven. Other weaving may be done, using strips of any 
desired width and color, and working out various designs 
in the square. As stated elsewhere, these squares may be 
purchased all ready for weaving, if desired; but it is cheaper 
to make them, and the practice in ruling and cutting is 
also desirable. See Figure 4. 

2 — Paper Box 

Materials: Drawing paper, ruler, pencil, scissors and 
paste. 

Directions: Draw on a piece of paper a square just 
double the size you want your box to be. Fold over the 
lower edge on the upper, then the lower edge back on the 
crease, then the upper edge forward on the crease. Turn 
the paper half around and do the same. Open. You 
will now have sixteen squares. With the scissors cut 
the lower edge of the two top corner squares and the 
upper edge of the two bottom corner squares. Fold, so 
that the four middle squares form the bottom of 
the box. Paste the corner squares on the inside of the box. 
Another box may be made in the same manner and used as 
a cover. Heavier paper may be used for boxes to store 
seeds and other agricultural products. 

3 — Paper Basket 

Materials: Same as for the paper box. 

Directions: If a square basket is desired, it may be 
made the same as the box. Then paste the handle to it, 
letting the ends extend on the inside of the basket. A 
better form is an oblong about six by eight inches. Rule 
and cut a paper this size, being careful to get it exact. Fold 
it into two-inch squares, as directed for the box. Turn 



GEXERAL IXDl\STRIAL WORK 21 

the paper with the long side up and down. Cut the two 
sides of the upper middle square. Do the same for the lower 
middle square. Fold the corner squares over the middle 
squares and paste. Cut the handle and paste on the inside 
in the middle of the basket. After practicing with drawing 
paper, heavier material may be used for more permanent 
baskets. Two colors may be used, if desired. 

4— Paper Table 

Materials: Heavj^ folding paper, scissors and paste. 

Directions: Cut a square twice the dimensions desired 
for the table. Fold it into sixteen squares, as directed in 
making the box. Cut along the bottom of the two upper 
corner squares and along the top of the lower corner squares. 
Fold the ends over the corner squares and paste securely. 
The bottom of the box just made is the top of the table. 
Cut out an oblong from each side beginning one half inch 
from the corners, making it about three inches long, to 
form the legs. 

6 — Paper Chair 

Materials: Same as for the paper table. 

Directions: Cut a square having about three fourths 
as many inches on a side as you used for the table. Fold 
this into nine squares, as directed in the first numbers. Cut 
along the top of the lower corner squares. Cut along both 
sides of the upper middle square. Fold the upper mid_dle 
square toward you. This forms the back. Now fold 
one of the upper corner squares over the other and fold 
the rest of the squares to form a cube. Paste securely. 
Strengthen the back by pasting a paper of the same size 
over it. At the bottom cut out oblongs from each side 
to form the legs, as directed for the table. The back ma}^ 
be ornamented or left square. 



22 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

6 — Paper Lantern 

Materials: Plain or colored folding paper, black paper, 
scissors and paste. 

Directions: Paste half-inch bands of dark or black paper 
across the top and bottom of a six inch square of colored 
paper or paper tinted with water colors. Wall paper makes 
pretty lanterns. Fold the bottom over on the top edge. 
Cut half inch slits from the crease to the black paper. Form 
circles with the black edges, making the top and bottom 
of the lantern. Paste securely. Cut the handle of the same 
material as the circular strips, making it the same width 
and six inches long. Paste it to the lantern, and hang where 
the lantern will show to advantage. A cardboard bottom 
may be inserted, and a small candle fastened to it. 
7 — Jack-o'-lantern 

Materials: Drawing paper and yellow construction 
paper, or tinted drawing paper. 

Directions: Draw an oval the shape of a pumpkin 
about three by three and one half inches, leaving a short 
stem at the top. Cut out. With this, trace another on 
yellow or tinted paper. Cut this out. Then cut holes for 
the eyes, nose, and mouth, and paste the colored paper over 
the other. Black disks of paper may be pasted on the 
pupils of the eyes, and triangles for the teeth. These may 
be used for invitations or hung up for decorations. 
8 — Halloween Fence 

Materials: Manila drawing paper and yellow tinted 
paper. 

Directions: Using a piece of drawing paper eight inches 
long and two and one half inches wide, cut out quarter- 
inch oblongs three and one half inches long, leaving a quarter 
of an inch at each end to represent the post. Cut out five 
of these, leaving four strips of paper for the boards. Do 



i 




GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 23 

likewise on the other half of the paper. This will make three 
posts and four boards between each, 
with the posts projecting above and 
below. Paste the fence to a sheet of 
colored mounting paper. On the top of 
each post paste a small Jack-o'-lantern 
Figure 5 Halloween about One and a quarter inches in diam- 
S'iaoSrS.'""""^ eter. See Figure 5. 
9— Christmas Bell 
Materials: Red construction paper about the weight 
of light oak tag, pencil and scissors. 

Directions: On a five-inch square draw or trace a bell, 
having the widest part at the bottom, the width of the square. 
A rounded projection in the middle at the bottom represents 
tongue, or clapper, of the bell. Cut along the outline. 
A small hole punched in the top of the dome will enable 
one to hang the bell. It may be used to send an invitation 
to a school entertainment. 

10— Christmas Stocking 
Materials: Same as for number seven. 
Directions: On a piece of red construction paper draw 
or trace a stocking about eight inches long and three inches 
wide at the top, and foot. Cut along the line. This may 
also be used to send an invitation or to hang up for Christ- 
mas decoration. 

11 — Santa Claus 

Materials: Red cardboard, cotton and metal fasteners. 

Directions: Trace the upper part of the body down as 
far as the waist line, making this part about five inches 
from the top of the head to the waist, and about three 
inches across at the waist. Cut out. Cut the arms and 
fasten with a brass fastener, one on each side of the body. 
Cut out the lower limbs about four inches long and fasten 



24 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



on the under side of the waist line. Both 
the arms and legs will then be movable. 
Paste cotton on the head for hair and 
whiskers; on the hands for fm* mittens; on 
the waist line of the coat and above the 
ankles for the tops of the leggings. This 
makes an interesting Christmas decoration. 

12— Roving or Yarn Rug 
Materials: Loom and needle, carpet 
yarn or string for warp, and rags, yarn, 
chenille, raffia or roving, for the woof. 

Directions: Thread the warp back 
and forth through the notches at the ends 
Fig^e. sliTta'ciaus of the loom. See that it is as tight as 
at Christmas. possible. Weave the woof over one strand 
of the warp and under the next, across the rug. Return, 
going under the strand 3^ou went over before, and over the 
next, and so on. If a long wooden needle is used, it may be 





Figure 7. Raffia bag, yarn mat on a homemade loom and a raffia mat. 



GEXERAL lyOlSTRIAL WORK 25 




Figure 8. Roving and chenille rugs. 

drawn across the entire mat at once, thus saving time. 
Colored borders and stripes may be used or designs worked 
in. The loom can be adjusted to any size of material. 
In a previous paragraph, see directions for making a home- 
made loom. Keep the woof tight by packing it with the 
needle and finger. When finished, remove and bind the 
ends of the warp with carpet yarn, or make a fringe. Raffia 
may be used instead of roving or yarn. See Figures 7 and 8. 

13 — Hammock 

Materials: Cardboard loom, macrame cord in two 
colors, a large darning needle and two brass rings about 
three fourths of an inch in diameter. 

Directions: Fasten the warp into the rings which are 
attached to one side of the loom, and wind it around the 
ends of the loom over the notches, or through the holes, 
if those are used instead of notches. Any number of warp 



26 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 




Figure 9. A hammock made of macrame cord. 



strands may be used, from sixteen to twenty being common. 
After the warp is stretched tightly, begin the weaving with 
the same material used for warp. The woof strands should 
be about half as long as the distance between the two rings 
after the hammock is removed. Colored stripes may alter- 
nate or borders may be used. When finished, remove from 
the loom and make a fringe. 

14 — Reed Napkin Ring 

Materials: Wooden loom, number three or four rattan, 
number one rattan, flat reed and a knife. 

Directions: Make a small wooden base of basswood or 
pine two and one half inches square and a quarter of an 
inch thick. On this base draw a circle two inches in diam- 
eter. With the ruler find the perpendicular diameter, and 
place a dot at each end of it on the circle. Do the same for 
the horizontal diameter. Again divide the space between 
the dots into three equal parts, until you have twelve dots 
on the circle, the same distance apart. With a brace and 
bit, or gimlet, bore holes through the base at the dots. 
These should be a trifle larger than the size of rattan you 
want to use for the frame of the napkin ring. Cut twelve 



i 



GENERAL IN DU. ST RIAL WORK 27 

pieces of rattan about the size of a match and one and one 
half inches long. Place these firmly in the holes of the base. 
Using rattan a size smaller as a weaver, weave four times 
around the base, going inside of one upright and outside the 
next. The second time around weave opposite to the first 
time, and alternate each time. The weaver is moistened so 
it is tough and pliable. Pull it tight, and press firmly against 
the base. Next use flat reed for two layers and weave in 
the same way. Then weave four rounds more of the same 
size rattan as on the bottom. Fasten the last end securely. 
Pull the ring off the base, being careful not to leave any of 
the uprights in it. With number one rattan, bind the edge 
together firmly by fastening one end around the top of an 
upright, crossing to the next lower end, twisting around this 
end, crossing to the next upper end, and so on, until you 
have gone around the ring twice and finished binding each 
upright. Cut off the ends of the uprights. Your napkin 
ring should be strong and somewhat resemble a snare drum 
on the outside. Be sure to keep the material moist while 
working. See Figure 10. 

15 — Raffia Picture Frame 

Materials: Cardboard and raffia. 

Directions: Cut out a circle from the cardboard. It 
may be any desired size, but about six inches in diameter 
is common. Cut another circle in the center, leaving a hole 
in the middle about two and one half inches in diameter. 
Select board, smooth raffia. Moisten it, and wind carefully 
around from center to outside. When finished, sew a braid 
of raffia around the outer edge, making a loop at the top by 
means of which to hang it up. Put in the picture. Oval 
or square shape frames may be made according to the in- 
dividual preference. 



28 



lNDi\STRJAL WORK FOR B0T8 



16— Rattan Mat 

Materials: Number three rattan for spokes, raffia and 
number one rattan for weaving. 

Directions: For a six-inch mat you will need to use 
pieces of rattan fourteen inches long in order to make the 
border and fasten the ends. Cut eight pieces of the number 
three rattan fourteen inches and one piece eight inches, as 
it is easier to weave with an odd number of spokes. Take 
four of the long spokes and cut a slit one half inch long 
exactly in the middle of each. Draw the other four long 
spokes half way through these slits, making a cross. Put 
in the short spoke until the end shows on the other side. 
With a needle weave raffia over one and under the next spoke, 
starting in the center, until you have woven a little circular 
mat about an inch all the way round from the center, or two 
inches in diameter. You will thus make a firmer middle 
than you can usually get with the rattan. Now use number 




Figure 10. Rattan and rafRa work, showing serving tray, baskets, collar box, 
mats and napkin rings. 



GEXERAL IXDUSTRIAL WORK 29 

one rattan for the weaver in the same way, and keep the 
seventeen spokes the same distance apart, until you have 
a mat about sLx inches in diameter. Now sharpen the ends 
of the spokes, moisten them so they will bend easily, and 
pass each one in front of the next spoke to the left, and push 
it down beside the second spoke, thus making a loop about 
two inches across and an inch high. Do this with each 
spoke until the border is finished. While the mat is moist, 
see that it Hes perfect!}- flat. When dry, put on a coat of 
clear or colored shellac. See Figure 10. 
17— Rattan Basket 

Materials: Number four and number two rattan, and 
plain raffia. 

Directions: Cut eight pieces of number four rattan from 

eighteen to twenty-four inches long, depending upon the 

height of the basket desired, tw^ent}^ inches being a good 

length. Cut one piece an inch or two more than half this 

length for the odd spoke. Proceed as for the mat in number 

16, using the raffia center, until you have a four-inch bottom. 

Moisten the spokes, and turn each one up as you pass the 

weaver around it. Keep the weaving pressed down firmly, 

the spokes the same distance apart, and be very careful in 

shaping 3'our basket, that it may be even all the way around. 

When through weaving, fasten the end securely. Make a 

border with the spokes as for the mat, onh^ pass the spoke 

to the left in front of two spokes instead of one, and push it 

down beside the third. This will strengthen the top. Be 

sure the shape is good. Let dr3^ Shellac, natural or colored. 

See Figure 10. 

18— Raffia and Rattan Mat 

Materials: Number two or three rattan, raffia, needle. 

Directions: Moisten the rattan and begin a coil. Take 

a needle full of raflfia. Wind the end of the coil for a short 



30 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOTS 

distance and fasten it together in a ring as small as you 
can draw it. Continue coiling the rattan, and winding it 
with raffia. Wind from you. x\bout every third wind, 
pass the needle between the ring formed and the next coil 
of rattan, thus fastening the rattan to the ring. The third 
coil is fastened to the second in the same manner and so 
on until the mat is completed to any desired size. Colors 
may be used for as many coils as you wish, making borders. 
This makes a soft durable mat. 

19— Collar Box 
Materials: Same as for number eighteen. 
Directions: Make the bottom six inches in diameter, 
the same as the mat was made. Then turn the coils up to 
form the circular side of the box. If two pieces of number 
two or three rattan are wound together instead of one 
piece, the effect is more pleasing, and you will have a firmer 
box. Continue the coils until the box is three inches deep. 
Now make a cover in the same manner as the bottom was 
made, turning the edges up half an inch, so they will fit 
down over the box, when inverted for the cover. This 
may be fastened on, if desired. See Figure 10. 

20— Wastebasket 

Materials: A circular base of one half an inch of pine 
or basswood nine inches in diameter, heavy rattan for 
spokes, number seven or eight, and rattan about two sizes 
smaller for weaving. 

Directions: Drill a row of twenty-five holes one half 
an inch from the edge of the wooden base. Cut twenty- 
five spokes of heavy rattan about two feet long, and put 
them through the holes so that they extend about three 
fourths of an inch below. Using rattan about two sizes 
smaller as a weaver, turn the bottom side up, and weave 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



31 




Figure 11. Rattan wastebaskets. 



six or eight rows around the 
spokes, as in basket weaving. 
Then fasten the ends of the 
spokes securely, making a 
close border. Now turn the 
bottom over, and press the 
board down firmly on the 
rattan base. Begin to weave 
above the board, keeping the twenty-five spokes the same 
distance apart, and shaping the basket as you proceed. 
Make to any desired height, usually about a foot, and 
fasten the top of the spokes as for the mats and baskets. 
Cut off ends of spokes. Colored rattan will make effective 
designs. Finish with shellac. See Figure 11. 

21— Serving Tray 

Materials: Wooden base, pine or basswood and rattan. 

Directions: Make a wooden base of half-inch material 
in an oval about fifteen inches long and ten inches at the 
widest part. Bore holes for heavy rattan as for the basket. 
Make the spokes long enough to weave and fasten below 
and to make the tray about two inches deep with a close 
border on top. Weave with number five or six rattan and 




Figure 12. Clay work, showing fruit and geometriral forms 



32 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

use number seven or eight for the spokes. This makes a 
very firm and useful tray. It should have two coats of 
shellac for finish, either dark or natural. See Figure 10. 

22— Clay Modeling 

Materials: Clay, oilcloth, water colors and shellac. 

Directions; Prepare the clay the day before it is to be 
used. Do not have it too wet, just moist enough to work 
well. Knead until oily. Mould into shape of object being 
modeled. If fruit, tint with water colors. Let dry. Shel- 
lac with natural finish. See Figure 12. 



J 



CHAPTER III 



ROPE WORK AND BELT LACING 

Rope is used so much on the farm that every boy 
should know at least how to take care of it, make a splice 
and tie the most common knots. Rope is made from the 
fibers of several different plants, as manila, sisal and com- 
mon hemp, flax, 
cotton, jute and 
cocoanut fiber. 
These fillers are 
twisted in yarns, 
the yarns are 
twisted the oppo- 
site direction into 
strands and the 
strands twisted in 
the same direction 
as the fibers into 
rope. The oppo- 
site twisting keeps 
the rope from un- 
twisting. See 
Figure 13. 

The strength 
of rope depends 
upon the q uality of 
the fiber, the num- 
ber of strands, the 
workmanship and 

the kmd of pre- Figure 14. strands are twisted "left-hand" to form 
of^r^rnii^ra r,n iha ^°P^ and the ropes are twisted "right-hand" to 

Serv au\ e on me form a cable. 




Figure 13. The construction of rope. The fibers 
are woven into yarns, the yarns into strands and the 
strands into rope. 




3— 



33 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR B0T8 




Figure 1 5. Whipping, or wrapping, the end of a rope, showing the first three 
steps in the process. 

fiber. The strength naturally decreases with age, wear and 
exposure. A safe load must be much less than the breaking 
strength, and for old ropes it must be a matter of good 
judgment. Rope should be kept in a dry place. If it gets 
wet, it must be stretched out straight to dry. A hardened 
rope may be made pliable again by boiling in soft water. 

* Whipping" is 
used to prevent 
the ends from un- 
twisting. This is 
done by putting 
a string under a 
strand of the rope 
about three inches 
from the end and 
allowing one end 
to hang loose. 
Wrap the other 

end of the string Figure 1G. The final steps in whipping. 




ROPE WORK AXD BELT LACING 



35 




Figure 17. Forming the "bight," or loop, for a 
figure eight knot. 



once around the rope, and then fold the loose end over. 
Continue wrapping the string tightly around the rope and 
string until 3'Ou have wrapped about half way to the end of 
the rope. Fold the loose end back to form a loop that ex- 
tends a little beyond the end of the rope. Wrap the string 
around the rope and loop, and pull the other end until it 
draws the string under 
the whipping as far as 
possible. See Figures 
15 and 16 showing 
the operation. 

The figure eight 
knot is used for pre- 
venting the strands 
from untwisting, and 
for forming a hand- 
hold at the end of the 
rope or at any point 
between the ends. In 
making it, form a 
bight as shown in 
Figure 17, then move 
the end as shown b}" 
the arrow in Figure 
17 until it is in the 
position shown in 
Figure 18. Draw it 
up tight. 

The overhand knot 
is used for the same 
purpose as the figure 
eight knot and is 

tit' ' Figure 19. The overhand knot before 

made by lorming a ^ drawing tight. 




Figure IS. The completed figure eight knot. 




36 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



The 




Figure 20. Crossing the ropes to tie a 
square knot. 



bight through which the end of the rope is passed, 
loose knot is shown in Figure 19. 

The square knot 
is used for tjdng rope 
securely together. 
The knot may be tied 
by studying the illus- 
trations. Cross the 
ropes as shown in 
Figure 20. Move end 
B as shown by the 
arrow until it is in 
the position shown in 
Figure 21. Move 
ends A and B as 
shown by the arrows 
until the}'- are in the 
position shown in Fig- 
ure 22. Be sure the 
proper end is nearest 
you at the point of 
crossing in the right 
hand. Move end B, 
as shown ])y the ar- 
row, until it is in the 
position shown in Fig- 
ure 23, and draw up 
tight as shown in Fig- 
ure 24. Both parts 
of one rope should be 
in front of or behind 
the other, as shown 
at points C and D in ^^^^^^ '"• ^"'TlSd T ^"^ "°""' "^' 




Figure 21. The second step. 




ROPE WORK AXD BELT LACING 



37 




Figure 23. 



End B brought under to com- 
plete the knot. 



Figure 23, not as shown at points E and F of the granny 
knot in Figure 25. 

The grann}' knot shown in Figure 25, is of very Httle 
use and tends to sUp under a pull. It is tied only by those 
who do not know the difference between it and the 
square knot. 

The bread box knot 
shown in Figure 26, 
looks very much like 
the square knot, but 
it is likely to slip. 
The difference in the 
finished knot is in the 
positions of the ends 
A and B, as can be 
seen in comparing 
Figures 23 and 26. 

The slip knot is 
used when a loop is 
wanted that will slip 
up tight around an 
object. There are four 
steps in tying it. Hold 
the rope as shown in 
Figure 27. Move the 
right hand so that 
point A moves as 
shown by the arrow 
in Figure 27, thus 
forming a round turn 
in the left hand as 

shown in Figure 28, Figure 25. The granny knot. A poor knot. 
and allow the right Note the difference between it and the square 




Figure 24. Pulling the square knot tight. 




INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 




Figure 26. The bread box knot. Similar to 
the square knot but likely to slip. 



hand to slip on the rope to point B. Move the right hand 
so that point B moves, as shown by the arrow, to the posi- 
tion shown in Figure 29. Draw the overhand knot that has 
-been formed up tight and the finished knot should appear 
as shown in Figure 30. 

The slip knot and half hitch make a combination that 
form a permanent 
loop that will not shp. 
Tie a slip knot by the 
method shown in Fig- 
ures 27 to 30, except 
that you start with 
the short end held in 
the right hand and the 
long part in the left 
hand. The slip knot 
is shown in Figure 31. 
Move end A as shown 
by the arrow. A half 
hitch is thus made 
around the long end 
as shown in Figure 
32. Complete the 
knot by drawing up 
tight as shown in Fig- 
ure 33. 

The double bow- 
line is used when a 
loop is wanted be- 
tween the ends of a 
rope that will not pull 
tight or shp. It is 

tied as follows: Grasp Figure 28. The second step. 




Figure 27. Starting the slip knot. 




ROPE WORK AND BELT LACIXG 



39 




Figure 29. The point B in figure 28 has been 
passed through the loop. 



the rope as shown in Figure 34. Tie an overhand knot as 
shown in Figure 35. Fold loop A back over the overhand 
knot as shown by the arrow, and then grasp the knot with 
the left hand exactly at point B as shown in Figures 35 and 

36. Hold the double bight securely in the left hand and 
draw that part of the 
rope which forms loop 
A through the double 
bight, as shown by 
the arrow in Figure 

37. This knot may 
be tied through a 
loose ring. 

The block and 
tackle is used for lift- 
ing heavy loads. The 
more ropes in the 
''tackle/' the greater 
the weight that can 
be lifted with a given 
power. Figures 38 
and 39 show how to 
thread double and 
triple blocks. The 
part of the rope to 
which the power is ap- 
plied is called the fall 
rope, and the block 
from which it passes 
is called the fall block. 
The fall block in Fig- 
ure 39 is a triple block. 

rriu xi. 1 Figure 31. Beginning the slip knot and 

ihe others shown are ^ half hitch. 




Figure 30. The finished slip knot. 



y^ 


y 


r 



40 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



double blocks. Passing the rope through the blocks in the 
proper way for use is called reeving. One of the blocks 
always has a becket, or projection, to which the rope is 
fastened. In reeving blocks it is best to pass the rope 
through the blocks in the opposite direction to that in which 
it runs when the blocks are in action. This saves pulling 
all the rope through the block. Fasten the rope to the becket 
and pass it over the sheave farthest from the becket and 

around the pulleys in 
each block as shown 
in the illustration. 




Figure 34. Starting the bowline knot. 



Figure 38. Simple "block 
and tackle." 



ROPE WORK AND BELT LACING 



41 



Common wooden blocks with iron sheaves are used for 
all ordinary work. For very heavy work, such as stump 
pulhng, special blocks with heavy hooks and straps may be 
obtained. In ordering, the size of the rope to be used, the 
number of sheaves, and whether a becket is desired should 
be explicitly stated. 

For heavy work, such as stump pulling and bridge work, 
blocks may be had with extra heavy hooks and straps and 
these also are equip- 
ped w^ith roller bear- 
ings for the sheaves. 





Figure 35. The second step, or overhand knot. 




Figure 36. Loop A folded back as shown by 
arrow in figure 35. 



Figure 39. Showing another 
form of block. 




Figure 37. The final step of the bowline knot. 



42 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

Steel blocks may be had, as, also, blocks of different 
construction for wire rope. 

All blocks and rope must receive the very best of care. 
Otherwise their efficiency will be considerably impaired, in- 
volving the possibility of both loss and danger. 

SUPPLEMENTARY ROPE WORK. 

Crowning, or making a spliced end on a rope, is often 
desirable. It is used on the end of a halter rope or on any 
rope to stiffen the end and prevent its unraveling. To 
begin, unlay the strands about seven inches back from the 
end. Bend one strand over between the other two. The 
second is bent over the end of the first, and the third over 
the end of the second and under the loop, or bight, of 
the first. Draw the three strands down tight. Splice back 
each strand separately by putting it over the nearest strand 
in the rope and under the next strand. Pull each very 
tight. 

The short splice is made in more than one way. A good 
method with three-strand rope is as follows: Unlay the 
ends to be spliced back about ten inches. Bring the two 
ends together so that each strand of one rope lies between 
two strands from the opposite rope. Tie each pair of strands 
together with a square knot and pull the knots tight. Work 
back each strand over one and under the next strand of the 
main rope, the same as in crowning. This splice is used 
where the size of the rope makes no difference. 

The long splice must be used in a rope that is to run 
through a pulley or for any purpose where the size of the rope 
must not be increased. Untwist about two feet of the ends 
of the two ropes to be spliced. Perhaps the most simple 
method is to unlay one strand at a time and work that back 
first. Bring the ends of the two main ropes together at the 



ROPf: WORK A\n BELT LACIXG 



43 



point where you ceased unraveling. Twist the strand of 
one rope into the groove previously occupied by the strand 
of the other. As fast as a strand is unlaid on one rope 
follow it up with the corresponding strand on the other. 
Continue until about six inches of each strand is left. Then 
tie each two strands w^th the first half of a square knot and 
pull tight. Continue to pass each of these strands around 
the other for two or three turns, leaving out a little of each 
strand each time after the second turn, so as to taper to a 
point. Cut off the ends. 

Rope halters are very useful. They are especially good 
for getting young colts used to halters. They are easily made 
from half-inch rope and cost much less than leather ones. 
Crown an end of a rope about fifteen feet long. Allowing 
about six inches of the other end for splicing, measure off 
enough rope to go over the head 
of the animal for which the halter 
is to be made. A few inches 
from this point on the long end 
of the rope raise a strand and run 
the short end through and form 
an eye. Three or four inches 
farther along on this end of the 
rope raise another strand and put 
the short end through again, in 
the opposite direction, forming 
another loop. From this last 
loop measure off enough rope for 
the nose piece, raise a strand and 
run the short end through for 
about six inches. Separate the 
strands of the six-inch piece of 
rope and splice one into the Figure 4o. R-.pe halter. 




44 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

piece that goes over the head, one into the nose piece and 
one into the main rope. Run the crowned end of the rope 
through the first loop formed and tie with a knot. 

The student should have a copy of a bulletin on rope from 
the state agricultural college or Farmers' Bulletin Number 
638. These give explicit directions and photographs of the 
different stages of rope splicing. 

BELT LACING 

Belt lacing has become a necessity on the modern farm. 
Every boy should know how to do it. A kind of lacing 
that would be satisfactory for a three-inch belt would not 
do for a six-inch belt. The hair, or grain, side of a leather 
belt goes next to the wheel or pulley. Strips of good, tough 
leather should be kept on hand where machinery is run by 
belting. As leather is rather expensive for practice in belt 
lacing in school, stiff cardboard may be used instead. A 
width may be cut to correspond with the width of the belt. 
Each student should prepare two pieces of cardboard the 
same width. Common widths are three inches and six 
inches. Make each piece of cardboard a little longer than 
it is wide. One side should be marked '^grain side" to re- 
present that side of the leather. Common binding twine 
may be used for the laces. If a belt punch is not available, 
the holes may be made with an awl. They should be just 
large enough to allow the twine to pass through twice. 

There are several good methods of lacing. The two here 
described are given in Farmers' Bulletin Number 638. The 
holes in the cardboard, or leather, if it is available, should 
be made to correspond with those in the illustrations. The 
lace must be kept pulled tight constantly. 



ROPE WORK AXD BELT LACING 



45 






^ T 
V 










o 

SID£ 



Lacing for Three-inch Belt. 
Punch the holes as shown in Figure 41. The grain, or 

hair, side of both pieces of cardboard representing the ends 

of the belt should be kept down. 
Pass one end of the lace down 
through S and up through the 
opening M. This opening should 
be made with an awl and in such 
a manner that it will not be 
round, as the friction from an 
irregular hole will be greater and 
the lace will not slip. The other 
end of the lace should be passed 
through the holes in the order 
here given: V, R, V, R, T, S, Y, 
X, Y, X, T, S, T, U. Always keep 
the lace tight. If an awl is not 

Figure 41. Three-inch belt laced, available for making the openings 



M and U, a small nail may 
be used, as there is but one 
thickness of lace to pass 
through. Cut off the ends 
of the lace and nick them so 
that the lace will not slip. 
Study Figure 41, and do this 
lacing until you know how 
to lace the belt without 
reference to the illustration. 

Lacing for Six-inch Belt. 

Punch the holes as shown 
in Figure 42. With the 
grain side down, pass one 



sSIDE 







Figure 42. Six-inch belt laced. 



46 IXDISTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

end of the lace through the hole C and up through hole D, 
the latter being made smaller than the others. Pass the 
other end of the lace through the holes sho\\Ti in the cut 
in the following order: B, C, G, H, G, H, K, L, K, L, 
O, P, O, P, N, M, N, M, J, I, J, I, F, E, F, E, B, C, B, 
and then through A, the other small hole made. Fasten 
the lace. Cut off the ends and nick them, thus preventing 
the lace from coming loose. This method will be found 
rather simple if the directions are followed carefully and 
practiced often enough to do the lacing without referring to 
the figures. 

After these methods have been mastered, work out some 
original designs. 

REFERENCES 

Vgncultural Engineering by Davidson; Knots, Splices and Rope 
Work by A. H Verrill; Knots, Hitches and Splices by H. W. Riley; 
Knotting and Splicing Ropes and Cordage by Paul N. Hasluck; 
Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book; The Blue Book of Rope 
Transmission; Rope and Its Use on the Farm by J. B. Frear (Min- 
nesota Agi-icultural Experiment Station Bulletin 136) and Rural School 
Agriculture Bulletin No. 1, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER IV 
WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 

Requisites to the success of manual training in the school 
might be summed up under a few heads, as follows: 
Encouragement, a workbench, a few simple and inexpen- 
sive tools, some lumber and other supplies, definite time for 
the work each week, some simple working drawings, and 
an enthusiastic teacher to direct the work. 

A workbench can probably be made by the students 
themselves with a little help from the teacher or from some 
man in the community who is "handy" with tools. If 
better mateiial is not available, it may be made of pine, 
but should be strong and durable. 

The tools needed are a try-square, hammer, hacksaw, 
a few coping saws, plane, dividers, chisel, a ruler for each 
student, a brace and a set of bits, wood file, screw driver, 
crosscut saw and a file and saw set for keeping the saws in 
shape. Students can bring tools enough from home to 
start. 

It is well to have on hand a little more lumber than is 
actually needed for each article. The following kinds of 
lumber will be needed: Bassw^ood, one fourth inch thick, 
and three eighths inch thick; pine, three eighths inch thick, 
one half inch thick, three eighths inch thick, one and one 
half inches thick, and one and three fourths inches thick; 
oak, one half inch thick, one inch thick, one and one half 
inches thick. By referring to the drawings and the material 
for each project, it will be seen what the dimensions are. 
If it is impossible to get the exact thickness wanted, get 
the nearest to it. 

47 



48 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR B0T8 



A few sheets of fine, medium and coarse sandpaper should 
be kept on hand. The coarse should be used first, and the 
finest for getting the smooth surface. A bottle of shellac, a 
small brush and a can or two of stain will complete the 
equipment needed. 

Working drawings are necessary for accurate work. 
Those given here are simple, and can be easily understood. 
They should be studied very carefully before attempting to 
make the articles. Upon the ability to read the drawings 
and directions well will largely depend the success of the 
project. 

The student should study from reference books the use 
of each tool used and how to take care of it and keep it 
sharp. He ought also to know where each kind of wood 
used grows, how it is manufactured and why it is used 
instead of some other kind of material. The same informa- 
tion should be obtained for all other materials used. 

The student should study each cut of the article to be 
made very carefully before attempting to do the work. 
Read directions and consult the cut again before starting. 
1 — Key Label 

Material: Basswood as follows: 4 inches by 1}4 inches 




Figure 43. Key label 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



49 



Tools Used: Chisel, saw, brace, bit and ruler. 

Directions: Saw out the stock 4 inches long and 1}4 
inches wide. Then lay out the key label following the 
dimensions given in the cut. Chisel the edges carefully 
down to the line. Bore the hole. 

2 — Match Scratcher 
Material: Basswood as follows: 3% inches by 23/2 
inches by 34 inch. Sandpaper. 

Tools Used: Chisel, 
saw, dividers, brace, bit 
and sandpaper. 

Directions: Saw out 
the stock 3% inches long 
and 21/^ inches wide. 
^^ico Lay out match scratcher 
'^ according to directions 
in the cut, using the 
dividers to make the 
arcs. Chisel to the pro- 
per shape and bore the 
hole. Cut out. Sand- 
Figure 44. Match scratcher. ^ ^^^^^, ^-jj g^^oo^h. Fit 

the sandpaper and fasten on with glue. This is a useful 
article and will make a nice little remembrance. 




3— Fishline Winder 

Material: Basswood as follows: 6 inches by 2% inches 
by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Chisel, saw, knife and ruler. 

Directions: Saw out the stock 6 inches long and 2J^ 
inches wide. Lay out the fishline winder, following direc- 
tions given in the cut. Chisel the sides to shape. With a 



4— 



50 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 




Figure 45. Fishline winder. 



sloyd knife or jackknife whittle out the ends to the proper 
shape. Every boy will find a use for this article. 

4— Plant Marker 

Material: Bass wood as follows: one piece 43/^ inches by 
23/^ inches by 14 inch; one piece 63^ inches by 13^ inches by 
3^2 inch. 

Tools Used: Chisel, 
saw, dividers, knife and 
hammer. 

Directions: Saw 
out the stock one piece 

43^ inches by 23^2 inch- 
es and one piece 63^^ 
inches by 134 inches. 
Lay out the face of the 
plant marker; then lay 
out the stake. Using - 
the knife, whittle out 
the face. Chisel out 
the stake. Nail the two 

pieces together. The Figure 46. Plant marker. 




WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



51 



plant marker will be found very useful in the spring when 
the vegetable garden is being made. 

6 — Window Prop 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece ^ inch by 4 inches 
by 11 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, square and chisel. 

Directions: Plane stock to given dimensions. Lay out 
steps. Saw and chisel to size. 





a" 


^ 5"- ' 






r ' 






\ 


^ 


'^ 


k 


-f 


V 


) 


—2— 


[—?"-] 


K/ 




.-r 

I 


c ''' 






// 








* 


^ 









Figure 47. Window prop. 

6— Soil Tube 
Material: Pine or bassw^ood as follows: two pieces ^ 
inch by 23^ inches by 4 feet; one piece % inch by 2 inches 
by 4 feet; two pieces ^ inch by ^ inch by 4 feet; two pieces 

1 



inch by ^ inch by 4 feet; one piece % inch by 2 inches by 
23/8 inches. Glass for front 2 inches wide and 4 feet long. 

Tools Used: Saw, hammer, plane and marking gauge. 

Directions: Plane back, sides and bottom to dimen- 
sions. Nail the tw^o sides to the back and back and two 
sides to bottom. Round off the 34-inch by 5^-inch strips 



52 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



//, 






//// 

/ 



// 



~4\—2—Ai 



,1 



^ 



ftl^ 



Look in a down 
at top 



^ on one edge and fit in from 
front edge 3^ inch and nail 
them in place. Round off 
one edge of ^-inch by 5^- 
inch strips and nail to front 
of tube, as shown. Sand- 
paper. 



7— Bill File 



Material: Pine as fol- 
lows: one piece J^ inch by 
23^2 inches by 10 inches. 
Two 10-penny finishing 
nails. 

Tools Used: Saw, ham- 
mer, marking gauge, brace 
and bit. 
Plane stock until smooth. Lay out bevels. 
Bore small hole for nails. Drive nails 



Soil tube. 



Figure 48. 

Directions: 
Cut and plane, 
through from back at 30-degree angle, and sandpaper until 
smooth. 



8— Bracket 

Material: Basswood 
or pine as follows: one 
piece 34 inch by 5 inches 
by 53^ inches; one piece 
34 inch by 3 inches by 6 
inches; one piece 34 inch 
by 23/^ inches by 5 inches. 

Tools Used: Plane, 
saw, dividers, scroll saw 
and hammer. 







\ 




2£— 


0( 


D 


■f- 






t 


^ 


" •>fN 










s 



Figure 49. Bill file. 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



5-3 




Figure 50. Bracket. 



Directions: 

Saw out stock 
and plane to 
thickness. Lay 
out top, back 
and bracket, as 
shown. Cut to 
Une, using scroll 
saw. Glue and 
nail together. 
Sandpaper until 
smooth. 



9 — Newspaper Holder 

Material: Pine, basswood or oak as follows: one piece ^ 
inch by 10 Ji inches by 14 inches; one piece % inch by 10^ 
inches by 10 inches; two pieces % inch by 2 inches by 10 
inches; one piece % inch by 2 inches by 10 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, 



plane, square, dividers, 
brace, bit, scroll saw, mark- 
ing gauge and chisel. 

Directions: Study 
drawing. Saw out stock 
and plane it to given di- 
mensions. Lay out back 
and saw two upper corners. 
Glue, nail together and 
sandpaper until smooth. 

10 — Planing Exercise 

Material: Pine 9M 
inches by IJ^ inches by 1% 
inches. 



^ 



±. 



-^ 



/of- 



^ 



^- 



-10- 



^_ 



f 



f 

Figure 51. Newspaper holder. 



54 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 




Figure 52. Planing exercise. 

Tools Used: Plane and saw. 

Directions: Plane and square a face. Test it with 
try-square. From this face square an edge. Next square 
one end with the squared face and edge. Cut to length and 
square end. Cut to width and square edge. Cut to thick- 
ness and square face. While the plane is necessary in 
making the objects listed above, it is not necessary to make 
up a planing exercise until more complicated projects are 
executed. If students do not get this exercise well the first 
time, it should be repeated, as they will need to be able to 
plane to the line in making the exercises that follow. 

11 — Sawing Exercise 

Material: Pine 934 inches by 1^ inches by IJ^ inches. 
Tools Used: Plane and saw. 

Directions: Plane and square up the stock to 9 inches 
and 114 inches square. Study the drawing and make saw 



,\ 


f\ 


Y\ 










^,r_. 


1^" 


L-ii"J 


i^-- 


I" 
•2* 


^1"-^ 


- r- 


h-'i- 


n'4^ 


\2 




























— i_J 





Figure 53. Sawing exercise. 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



55 



cuts as designated in the drawing, using the hacksaw. This 
exercise is also very necessary in order to do accurately the 
work that follows. 




Figure 54. Whisk broom holder I. 



12— Whisk Broom Holder I 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 8 inches by 
5 inches by 34 inch; one piece 5 inches by 5 inches by 34 
inch; two pieces 5 inches by 134 inches by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, brace, bit and hammer. 

Directions: Saw out the stock accordmg to directions. 
Lay out the back, front and sidepieces. Plane the back, 
front and sidepieces to the proper size. Then put the parts 
together. Bore the hole to hang the holder. This is a 
useful little article for the kitchen or bedroom. 



56 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



13— Whisk Broom Holder II 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 34 inch by 
8 inches by 8 inches; two pieces M inch by 1^ inches by 
73^ inches; three pieces 34 inch by 1 inch by 5^ inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, bit and brace. 

Directions: Saw stock to given dimensions. Lay out 

bevel on back and 
plane. Place side- 
pieces upon back, 
following dimen- 
sions. Mark off 
where bevel of the 
back comes and cut 
to shape. Place 
three front pieces 
on in position; 
mark and cut to 
shape. Glue, nail 
and sandpaper un- 

Figure 55. Whisk broom holder II. j^jj SmOOth 

14— Whisk Broom Holder III 

Material: Basswood as 
follows: one piece 34 inch 
by 5 inches by 9 inches; 
one piece 34 inch by 534 
inches by 534 inches; two 
pieces 34 inch by 1% 
inches by 53^ inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, 
plane, marking gauge, 
chisel, dividers, hammer, 
scroll saw, brace, bit and 

square. Figure 56. Whisk broom holder III. 





WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



57 



Directions: Saw out stock. Lay out back, front and 
sidepieces to given dimensions; then worlc out to lines, 
using scroll saw and chisel. 

15— Salt Box 

Material: Basswood as follows: One piece 10 inches 
by 5 inches by J4 inch; one piece 5 inches by 5 inches by 34 
inch; one piece 5 inches by 4% inches by 34 inch; two pieces 
6 inches by 4 inches by 34 inch; one piece 4 inches by 5 
inches by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out the back, front, bottom and two 
sides. Plane these pieces to the proper size. Put the parts 
together, using hammer and small nails. Bore the hole. 
This is a very useful article for the kitchen. The salt will 
be handy and kept clean, if the cover of the box is closed. 





Figure 57. Salt box. 



58 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



16— Match Box I 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 3J^ inches by 
33/2 inches by 34 inch; one piece 33^ inches by 2 inches by 
34 inch; one piece 3 inches by 1^ inches by 34 inch; two 
pieces 8 inches by 3% inches by 34 inch. 







^ 








/X 




.f i 

3 1 - 




02 


j 


-' 





L 




•i- 




-f 


a 


5 


.>^ 












f 






i> 



Figure 58. Match box I. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, knife, dividers, brace 
and bit. 

Directions: Saw out the stock to the proper size, fol- 
lowing the cut and directions given above. Lay out the 
parts, plane and whittle to the proper size and shape. Nail 
the pieces together and bore the hole. 

17— Match Box II 
Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 34 inch by 
334 inches by 734 inches; two pieces 34 inch by 33^ inches 



WOODWORK AT fiCHOOL 



59 



^-p. c>. 









i 



ci: 



Figure 59. Match box II. 



I) y 6 ^ inches ; 
one piece 34 inch 
by 2^/i inches by 
3^ inches; one 
piece 34 inch by 
234 inches by 
2^ inches; one 
piece 34 inch by 
1 Yi inches by 
334 inches; one 
piece 34 inch by 
2% inches by 
33^^ inches. 

Tools Used: 

Plane, saw, di- 
viders, screw 
driver, marking gauge, brace, bit and hammer. 

Directions: Plane back to size. Round off two top 
corners; lay out the two sides and cut them to shape. Plane 
covers to proper size and round off back edge. Plane two 
front pieces to size; plane bottom to size. Glue and nail 
back, sides, bottom and front pieces. Put cover on with 
two screws, as shown. 

18— Toothbrush Holder 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece IY2 inches by 
2% inches by 34 inch; one piece 2Y^ inches hy V/i inches by 
Y^ inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, hammer, plane, brace and bit. 

Directions: Saw out the stock according to directions. 
Lay out the back and the holder. Plane the back and 
holder to the proper size. Lay out the chamfer, or bevel, 
on the back. Plane off the beveled edge to the Hne. Lay 



60 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



^ NQC 



V<^\\\ 



2%- 



i^ 






rJi 





-2f 




4-1 


ih 





/4— 



Figure 60. Toothbrush holder. 



out the holes on the holder and bore them accurately with 
the brace and bit. Make the saw cuts. Study the draw- 
ing carefully. This is an article that should be in every 
home so that each member of the family can have a definite 
place for his toothbrush. Incidently, it may be that more 
brushes will be used, if the racks are made and taken home. 

19— House Nail Box 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece Yi inch by 9 inches 
by 1 foot 2 inches; two pieces Yi inch by 2Yi inches by 1 
foot 2 inches; two pieces Y2 inch by 2J^ inches by 8 inches; 
one piece ^4 inch by 5 inches by 1 foot 1 inch; one piece 
Yi inch by 2Y2 inches by 1 foot V/^ inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, keyhole saw, dividers, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Saw out stock. Plane to dimensions. Lay 
out the handle as dimensions call for. Cut to line, using 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



61 



brace and bit 
and keyhole 
saw. Plane 
stock and cut 
for partitions. 
Nail on parts, as 
shown, and 
sandpaper until 
smooth. 

20— Bird House 
M aterial: 

Basswood as fol- 
lows: two pieces 

Figure 61. House nail box. i-i • • i i 

534 inches by 
33^ inches by 34 inch; two pieces 4J^ inches by 4 inches 





sf 



^f 



6 



H 



Figure 62. Bird house. 



6'2 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

by 3^ inch; one piece ij/g inches by 3^ inches by 34 inch; 
two pieces 5}^ inches by 33^ inches by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out end pieces and cut them to the 
proper size with the saw. Lay out roof boards and plane 
to size. Plane the post to size. Assemble the pieces and 
fasten together. Paint any color desired. Gray or green 
are probably best. Students should be encouraged to make 
bird houses and erect them in the home yards, as they will 
then become more interested in all common birds, seeing 
their beauty as well as usefulness. 

21— Bread Board 

Material: Basswood or oak 12 inches by 6 inches by ^ 
inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, dividers, wood file and sand- 
paper. 

Directions: Saw out the stock 12 inches by 6 inches by 
% inch. Square one face. Square one edge with the 
squared face. Square one end with the squared face and 
edge. Cut to proper length and square the end. Cut to 
proper width and square the edge. Cut to proper thickness 




.1 



Figure 63. Bread board. 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



63 



and square the face. Lay out curved ends with the dividers 
and cut with chisel. Lay out rounded bevel and work round 
with the plane. Smooth up the bevel with the wood file. 
Sandpaper the entire board until it is perfectly smooth. 

22— Sleeve Board 

Material: Pine or basswood as follows: two pieces 22 
inches by 4^ inches by ^ inch; two pieces S}4 inches by 4 
inches by % inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, chisel, wood file, sandpaper, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Saw out the stock according to directions. 
Plane the bottom to the proper size and round the four 
corners. Lay out the top board and plane to the proper 
size and shape. Make dowel holes and put in the dowels. 
Put in bolts. Use wood file and sandpaper on all rough 
edges. Sandpaper the top until perfectly smooth. This 
is a very useful article in the home and not difficult to make, 
if the drawing and the directions are followed carefully. 




Figure 64. Sleeve board. 



64 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



23— Knife Box 

Material: Oak as follows: one piece 12^4 inches by 63^ 
inches by % inch; two pieces 8 inches by 5 inches by ^ inch; 
two pieces 12 inches by 3 inches by % inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, cUviders, brace, bit 
and sandpaper. 

Directions: After studying the drawing, saw out the 
stock. Plane the bottom piece to the proper size. Lay 




Figure 65. Knife box. 

out the rounded bevel and plane. Lay out end pieces and 
cut them to shape. Cut the holes for handles in the end- 
pieces, using brace and bit. Cut sidepieces to proper size. 
Assemble and nail pieces together. Sandpaper the entire 
box until smooth. This is another very useful article. 
While it is called a knife box, knives, forks and spoons can 
be kept in it. 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



65 



24 — Floor Broom Holder 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece 8 inches by 3 inches 
by % inch; one piece 53^2 inches by 23^ inches by % inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, brace, bit, chisel, sandpaper 
and screw driver. 

Directions: Square up the bottom piece and the holder 
to size, following the drawing and the directions. Lay out 
the bevel on the bottom piece and plane the bevel. Lay 
out the holder and . 

cut to the proper '^ 
shape. Bore the hole 
for the holder. Make 
saw cuts. Assemble 
and fasten the pieces 
together with screws, 
as shown in the 
drawing. Sandpaper 
carefullj^ until 
smooth. This use- 
ful little article will 
be welcomed by any 
housekeeper. Unless 
there is a proper 
place for the broom, 
it is often short- 




Figure 



Floor broom holder. 



lived and usually in the way 



25 — Knife, Fork and Spoon Tray 

Material: Oak as follows: two pieces 14^^ inches by 
23/^ inches by % inch thick; three pieces 83^ inches by 23/8 
inches by % inch; one piece 83^ inches by 33^ inches by % 
inch thick. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, chisel, brace, bit and 
sandpaper. 



6'6 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 




^^ 






i -lev. 




"^^ 




^^ 




f 






I 


1 


-r- 




»oj>J- 


J 


P"-J ! ' 


r-*<o 


^ vi^v ; 


J^7 




^4- 




^Ml i 


7 




|S/^IOD 



Figure 67, Knife, fork and spoon tray. 



Directions: After study- 



ing the drawing, plane the L.. 
sides and ends to the proper ^^*- 
sizes. Plane the partitions to 
size. Cut out the handle and 
make it smooth. Assemble 
and nail pieces together. 
Sandpaper until smooth. 

26— Bench Hook 
Material: Oak as fol- 
lows: one piece % inch by 12 
inches by 1 foot 4 inches; one 
piece ^ inch by 2 inches by 
12 inches; one piece % inch 
by 2 inches by 10 inches. 









/c 






-/-O 



Figure 68. Bench hook. 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



67 



Tools Used: Saw, plane, marking gauge, square, screw 
driver, brace and drill. 

Directions: Saw out stock and plane to dimensions 
given. Screw the two end pieces on as drawing calls for, 
using drill slightly smaller than the shank of screw. 

27— Necktie Rack 

Material: Oak as follows: three pieces 16 inches by J/g 
inches by 34 inch; two pieces 5 inches by 1% inches by 3^ 
inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, chisel, sandpaper and hammer. 



IG 



^ 



Noo 



^ 




w 



>j^ 



Figure 69. Necktie rack. 



Directions: Plane the front and back pieces to the 
proper size, following the drawing. Lay out the ends and 
cut to proper shape. Nail the pieces together, and sand- 
paper carefully. Stain, using any desired color. The stain 



68 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



may be put on by using a cloth and rubbing it into the wood. 
This handy article would make a useful Christmas present^ 

28— Towel Roller 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece 21^ inches by 
4^ inches by ^ inch; two pieces 3 inches by 2 inches by 
^ inch; one piece 20 inches by 1^/2 inches by 13^2 inches. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, chisel, screw driver, wood file, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Saw out the stock. Plane and square up 
the back, the ends and the roller. Lay out the bevel on the 
back and plane it. Lay out the ends and cut to shape. 
Bore the holes in the ends for the roller. Plane the roller 
until it is round. Cut the tenons on the ends of the roller 
so they will fit the holes in the ends. Smooth the roller with 
the wood file. Fasten the end pieces to the back with screws, 
as shown in the drawing. Sandpaper all the pieces until 
they are smooth. Rub on the stain with a cloth. Put the 
roller in place. While the family towel is not sanitary, it is 



2/^' 



n»co 



7T~ 





to' 


\;i 


r 






-^w 




— 3 


'[ ^ 


♦ 



Figure 70. Towel roller. 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



69 



i'i 



-IfM 



I Fof^ 



better to have it on a roller than merely hung up on a nail. 
A roll of paper toweling could be fastened on the roller 
instead of the common towel. 

29— Milk Stool 

Material: Pine as follows: two pieces 10 inches by 9 
inches by ^ inch; one piece 16 inches by 53^ inches by ^ 
inch; one piece 11 inches by 5}/2 inches by ^ inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane 

15 H .- i and screw driver. 

Directions: Saw out the 
stock. Square up the top, 
the sidepieces and the bot- 
tom. Lay out the bevel on 
the top and plane it to the 
line. Lay out the ends and 
cut to the proper shape. 
Bring pieces together and 
fasten with screws. Sand- 
paper until smooth. As 
many of these stools can be 
used in any dairy barn as 
there are persons milking. 
Boxes, up-turned pails, and 
other temporary things are 
unhandy, and a stool can 



1 : 1 


Hi^ 




r^i^ 




-4^ 



Figure 71. Milk stool. 



be made with very little labor and expense. 
30— Camp Stool 

Material: Oak as follows: four pieces 21 inches by 13^2 
inches by % inch; four pieces 16^ inches by 1 inch by 1 inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, wood file, sandpaper, brace 
and bit. 



70 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 




13- 



Figure 72, Camp stool. 



Directions: 

Square up all 
pieces as 
given in the 
drawing. Bore 
holes in the 
sidepieces. 
Round up the 
crosspieces, 
usin g the 
plane. Bring 
the parts to- 
gether and fasten them securely. After sandpapering the 
stool it should be shellacked, using a brush or a cloth. A 
piece of canvas or common grain sack may be cut to the 
desired size and sewed around the crosspieces. A few camp 
stools on the porch or on the lawn will give enough extra com- 
fort to pay for the work of making them. Many boys plan 
an outing in the summer. These stools are collapsible and 
may be packed away with other camp utensils, or they may 
be made to come apart, the ''take down" kind, and carried 
in the knapsack. Or carry the canvas and make the stool. 
31— Another Toothbrush Holder 
Material: Oak as follows: one piece 8 inches by 4M 
inches by 3^ inch; one piece 8 inches by l}/2 inches by IJ/^ 
inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, dividers, bevel, sandpaper, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out the back and cut to the proper 
shape. Cut the holder to shape, using the drawing as the 
guide. Fasten the pieces together securely. Sandpaper 
until smooth and rub on a stain. As will be noticed, this is 
a more difficult model than Number 18 and more durable. 



WOODWORK AT SCHOOL 



71 



I 



CV 



I 



>$4^ 


fi" 


^ 






[^<'T 






o 


J 




£k-l4^'^-^l 


1" 




■li^^ 


^4— Hz' 




4- ' ' 




J I 1 • III III 11 I r-i— 1 ■ 

-;^ 1 1 ; III III III III 




^^^^ 




^^ 














i 






* 


-IcsJ 


1 roioo 


H^^ ^ 


u 


J^- 



Figure 73. Another toothbrush holder. 




Figure 74. Tub stand. 



32— Tub Stand 

Material: Oak as 
follows: six pieces 22 
inches by 23^2 inches 
by M inch; one piece 
173/2 inches by 4 in- 
ches by ^ inch; ten 
pieces 163^ inches by 
1 inch by 1 inch; one 
piece 16 inches by 5 
inches by ^ inch ; two 
pieces 36 inches by 
2}/2 inches by 54 inch. 

Tools Used : Saw, 
plane, brace and bit. 



7'2 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR B07S 

Directions: Study the drawing carefully. Square up all 
the pieces and cut them to the proper size. Work each 
piece to shape. Plane the crosspieces until they are round. 
Make them smooth with the wood file and sandpaper. 
Fasten the pieces together firmly. Finish with a coat or 
two of shellac. This is one of the most useful things that 
could be made for the kitchen. The rack can be folded up 
and put away when not in use. There is room for two tubs, 
and the wringer is fastened to the top of the stand. While 
it is more difficult to make than the other exercises given, 
it is not at all impossible for the average boy. It would 
also make a good home project. 



CHAPTER V 
HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 

The working drawings and directions for a few very 
useful home credit projects in woodwork are here given. 
They should suggest others. These projects have all been 
done by farm boys attending associated schools, and can 
be done by any bright, energetic young man. 

If there is not already a workshop at home, one should 
be provided. It should contain a bench sufficiently large 
for a man's convenience. Boxes or drawers, shelves and 
racks should be provided and arranged conveniently for 
holding tools. The following Hst of tools and equipment 
will be needed: 

Tools for Farm Shop 

1 Bench 1 Set of chisels 

1 Vise 6 Gouges, assorted sizes 

1 Jointer plane, 22-inch 1 Ratchet brace, 12-inch sweep . 

1 Jack plane, 14-inch 1 Set of general purpose wrenches 

1 Block plane, 6-inch 2 Monkey wrenches — 1 large, 1 small 

1 Ripsaw, 24-inch, 6 points 1 Glass cutter 

1 Crosscut saw, 22-inch, 8 points 1 Drawknife, 10-inch 

1 Keyhole saw 1 Mallet 

1 Steel square, 2-foot 1 Spokeshave 

1 Try-square, 8-inch 1 Marking gauge 

1 Sliding bevel, 8-foot 2 Hand screw drivers— one 5-inch,one 10-inch 

1 Claw hammer 1 Set of bits 

1 Pair dividers, 8-inch 2 Countersinks — 1 for wood, 1 for iron 

1 Plumb and level 1 Breast drill 

1 Hand axe 1 Set of drills 

1 — Workbench 
Material: Fir or pine as follows: one piece 3 inches by 
12 inches by 5 feet 8 inches; four pieces 4 inches by 4 inches 
by 2 feet 3 inches; three pieces 2 inches by 4 inches by 4 
feet 2 inches; two pieces 2 inches by 4 inches by 1 foot 6 
inches; three pieces 2 inches by 4 inches by 1 foot 4 inches; 
one piece ^ inch by 12 inches by 4 feet 2 inches; one piece 

73 



74 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



^ inch by 8 inches by 5 feet 8 inches; one piece % inch by 
3 inches by 6 feet; two pieces 2 inches by 3 inches by 1 foot 
8 inches; two pieces % inch by 3 inches by 8 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, monkey wrench, 
screw driver, square, brace and bit. 

Directions: Cut the legs to proper length and plane. 
Lay out housing for the 2 inches by 4 inches. Cut the side 



s^n 






-(^-O- 



'-'^'—^^ 



TL 



■-r':f 

-THJ I 



^'r 



3^ 



ffr. 



^' 



^: 



Figure 75. Workbench. 



rails and end rails to length, fitting them into housing tightly. 
Bore holes through the center of each joint and bolt, using 
^-inch bolts. Plane up the 2-inch by 4-inch by 1 foot 
4-inch pieces, bolting them to the inside and top of legs. 
Plane front board to dimensions and screw to the legs. 
Nail the other 2-inch by 4-inch by 1 foot 4-inch pieces in 
place, as shown. Plane up the top to dimensions. Place 
the top in position, letting it extend out 1 inch over the 
front edge and 10 inches over the left end and fasten in 
place with screws. Plane up the %-inch by 8-inch by 5 
feet 8-inch board to size and nail in place. Glue and screw 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 



75 



t 




a 



C5i 



the two 2-mch endpieces in place. Glue and screw the 
^-inch by 3-inch by 6-foot piece to the back of the top. 
Sandpaper until smooth and shellac. 
2— Shop Nail Box 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece ^ inch by 10 inches 
by 1 foot 2 inches; two pieces % inch by 3^ inches by 1 foot 
33^2 inches; two pieces ^ inch by 3^ inches by 10 inches; 
one piece ^ inch by 6 inches by 1 foot 2 inches ; one piece ^ 

inch by 3 inches 
by 1 foot V/s 
inches. 

Tools Used: 
Saw, plane, ham- 
mer, keyhole 
saw, dividers, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: 
Saw out stock. 
Plane to dimen- 
sions. Lay out 
the handle as 
dimensions call 
for. Cut to line, 
using brace and bit and keyhole saw. Plane stock and cut 
for partitions. Nail on parts as shown. Sandpaper until 
smooth. 

3 — Shop Horse 

Material: Fir or pine as follows: one piece 2 inches by 
4 inches by 3 feet; four pieces J4 inch by 4 inches by 2 feet; 
two pieces % inch by 5 inches by 7 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, marking gauge, brace, 
drill and screw driver. 



Figure 76. Shop nail box. 



76 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



^ 



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Directions: 

Saw out the 
stock as dimen- 
sions call for. 
Bevel the four 
legs, as shown 
in the drawing. 
Plane the two 
endpieces to 
shape. Drill 
holes for screws and screw parts together, as drawing shows. 




Figure 77. Shop horse. 



4— Fly Trap 

Material: Pine as follows: Two pieces % inch by 8 
inches by 1 foot; three pieces 3^ inch by 1 inch by 2 feet; 
two pieces ^ inch by % inch by 2 feet ; three pieces % inch 
by 63^-^ inches by 6 inches; two pieces % inch by ^ inch by 
2 feet; three pieces % inch by 13^ inches by 5 inches; two 
pieces 14 "^ch by 1 inch by Q}/2 inches; one piece ^ inch 
by 10 inches by 2 feet; two pieces % inch by 2 inches by 
10 inches. 

Tools Used: Plane, crosscut saw, ripsaw, keyhole saw, 
marking gauge, square, hammer and dividers. 

Directions: Lay out two endpieces, as shown, and saw 
to hues. Get out two pieces ^ inch by ^ inch by 2 feet 
long, nailing to botton of the 2 ends, as shown in drawing. 
Cover this with fly screen leaving bottom open. Then nail 
in place the three brace pieces 3^ inch by 1 inch by 2 feet. 
Lay out your three ^-inch by 63^-inch by 6-inch pieces, as 
shown, and cut to shape. Make frame, using two ^-inch 
by ^^-inch by 2-feet pieces and three ^-inch by 13^-inch 
by 5-inch pieces. Nail together putting the 3^-inch by 1-inch 
by 63/^-inch cleat on each end. Then nail the triangular 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 



77 




SIOeVllWCF B^lE BOf^Rb AHP dAITPANi 



Figure 78. Fly trap, adapted from Minnesota Agricultural College bulletin. 

shaped pieces in place, as shown in the 
drawing. Cover the two sides with 
screen, leaving bottom and top open. 
Get out the bottom piece. Screw two 
cleats on, as shown. Make two bait 
pans to dimensions and fasten them in 
place, as shown. Shellac or paint. 
5 — Fireless Cooker 
Material: Oak or pine as follows: 
Two pieces ^ inch by 2 feet 11 inches 
by 1 foot 7 inches; two pieces ^ inch by 
1 foot 6 inches by 1 foot 7 inches; two pieces ^4. inch by 1 
foot 6 inches by 2 feet 93^2 inches; one piece % inch by 2 




Figure 78a. Section 
view of fly trap. 



78 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



L 




feet 1 1 inches by 
1 foot 71^ inch- 
eight pieces 



es; 



Figure 79. Fireless cooker. Above, top view with cover 
removed. Below, sectional view of cover. 



J M inch by 4 
inches by 1 foot 
7 inches; two 
pieces % inch by 
4 inches by 1 
foot 8 inches; 
two pieces ^ 
inch by 23^ inch- 
es by 1 foot 8 
inches; two 
^ pieces ^ inch 
by IJ^ inches by 
4 feet ; two 
pieces J^ inch by 
4 inches by 2 feet 
1 inch; two pieces 
3^ inch by 2^ 
inches by 3 feet 
1 inch; two 
pieces % inch by 
13^ inches by 1 
foot 9 inches; two 50-lb. lard pails or any other suitable 
can about the same size with a cover. 

Tools Used: Plane, crosscut saw, ripsaw, keyhole saw, 
two-foot square, brace, quarter-inch bit, screw driver, ham- 
mer and marking gauge. 

Directions: Glue up stock wide enough to make top, 
bottom, sidepieces, endpieces and the inside piece. Work 
out to given dimensions. Glue and nail sidepieces to ends. 
Fit in bottom. Glue and nail in place. Plane up the nar- 




Figure 79a. Tireless cooker. Sectional view on A-A, 
showing cover and packing. 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 



79 



row strips to size for outside trimming. Glue and screw 
on from inside of box. Work out cover so it will fit flush 
with the outside edge of sidepieces and endpieces. Plane 
up l.V2-inch strips to fit around cover, mitering the corners. 
Glue and screw on. Fill box about 3 inches from bottom 
with suitable packing, such as ground cork, hay, wadded 
paper or wadding. Place lard cans so there will be about 

3 inches of space all around. Fill this space with packing 
to within 2 inches of top of can. Saw out inside piece to fit 
over the two cans, setting it down about 1 inch from top. 
Glue and nail in place. Make cushion for inside of cover, 
as shown, making it plenty large enough so that it will press 
down on cans tightly. Sandpaper all parts that show and 
stain and varnish. 

6 — Folding Ironing Table 
Material: Pine as follows: one piece 13^ inches by 1 foot 

4 inches by 5 feet 6 inches. Oak as follows: two pieces ^ 




Figure 80. Folding ironing table. 



80 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

inch by 2 inches by 4 feet; two pieces % inch by 2 inches by 
2 feet 1 inch; two pieces ^ inch by 2 inches by 1 foot 8Ji 
inches; one piece ^ inch by 4 inches by 2 feet 3 inches; one 
piece 134 inches by 2}/^ inches by 1 foot 4 inches; one piece 
M inch by 13/2 inches by 1 foot 6 inches; one piece 1 inch by 
% inch by 1 foot 6 inches; one piece ^ inch by ^4 inch by 1 
foot 23/2 inches; one piece % inch by ^ inch by 1 foot 53^2 
inches; one piece ^ inch by ^ inch by 1 foot 43^2 inches; 
one piece ^ inch by ^ inch by 1 foot 1 inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, dividers, hammer, chisel, brace, 
bit and screw driver. 

Directions: Saw out the stock for bottom pieces and 
plane to dimensions. Lay out holes, as shown, and bore, 
using J^-inch bit. Round off % inch at the edge of each end 
of the 134-inch by 23/2-inch by 1 foot 4-inch piece. Plane 
the corners of J^-inch by J^-inch pieces, making them eight- 
sided. Round off ends to fit J^-inch holes bored in the 2- 
inch strips. Lay out the 3€-inch by 4-inch by 2 feet 3-inch 
piece, as shown in the front support, cutting ^-inch tenon 
on the 4-inch end and cutting a mortise in the J^-inch by 
3^-inch by 1 foot 6-inch piece. Lay out the top, as 
shown, and saw and plane to lines. Fit all eight-sided pieces 
in, as shown, nailing through the outside 2-inch pieces. 
Fasten the top with screws. 

7— Clothes Bar 
Material: Oak as follows: sixteen pieces ^ inch by IJ^ 
inches by 2 feet 1 inch; four pieces ^ inch by 1% inches by 
foot 2 inches; two pieces % inch by 1^ inches by 2 feet; 
fifteen pieces ^ inch by ^ inch by 3 feet; one piece ^ inch 
by ^ inch by 2 feet 9 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, chisel, dividers, hammer, brace 
and bit. 



EO^IE PROJECTS IN ^VOOD^VORK 



81 




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Figure 81. Clothes bar. 

Directions: Saw out stock, plane the 
sidepieces to size and bore holes. Round 
off the rungs \}/2 inches on each end. 
Plane corners, making them eight-sided. 
Put together, as shown, nailing through 
the outside pieces. Sandpaper. 

8— Common Ladder 

Material: Fir or pine as follows: two 
pieces 1% inches by 2>}/2 inches by 14 feet ; 
thirteen pieces IJ^ inches by 13^2 inches 
by 2 feet 3 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, marking 
gauge, dividers, brace, bit and hammer. 






^r- 



t=- 






« 



Figure 82. Common 
ladder. 



82 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



Directions: Lay out sides to shape, as given, and bore 
holes. Work out rungs to shape and fit to sidepieces. 

9 — Outside Stepladder 

Material: Oak as follows: two pieces ^ inch by 3 inches 

by 6 feet 4 inches; two pieces J^ inch by IJ/^ inches by 6 feet 

3 inches; one piece 1 inch by 4 inches by 1 foot 7 inches; one 

piece 1 inch by 4 inches by 1 foot 3J^ inches; one piece 1 inch 





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Figure 83. Outside stepladder. 

by 4 inches by 1 foot 2}^ inches; one piece 1 inch by 4 inches 
by 1 foot 13^ inches; one piece 1 inch by 4 inches by 1 foot 
1 inch; one piece ^ inch by 8 inches by 1 foot 8 inches; two 
pieces ^ inch by 1 inch by 1 foot 8 inches; 3 pieces 3^ inch 
by 2 inches by 11 inches; two pieces J^ inch by 13^ inches by 
3 feet 10 inches; one piece J^ inch by 13/^ inches by 1 foot 8 
inches; one piece 34 inch by 1}^ inches by 1 foot 1 inch. 
Iron as follows: 2 pieces 3^ inch by 4 inches by 6 inches; 
two pieces }/s inch by 1 inch by 6 inches. 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 83 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, brace, bit, drill, 
marking gauge, keyhole saw and monkey wrench. 

Directions: Saw out stock to dimensions and plane. 
Lay out two sidepieces for treads. House in 34 inch. Plane 
treads to size, as given. Cut the ends of the 6 feet 4-inch 
pieces on a 20 angle. Fasten the treads in place with screws. 
Bend the two pieces of 3^-inch by 4-inch by 6-inch iron to 
angle shown, driUing holes as shown. Bolt on to front string- 
ers, using 34-ii^ch bolts. Plane the two back strips to dimen- 
sions. Round off one end, as shown, fastening to top with 
bolts. Let these pieces rest on back of stringers. Plane up 
the ^^-inch strips, cut to dimensions and fasten on back. 
Get out stock for pail holder, as shown, fastening in place 
under the second tread, as shown, using bolts and J/g-inch 
by 1-inch by 6-inch iron strips, as shown. Drill two holes 
through the top of the angle-iron on each side. Bolt the 
top tread to it. Sandpaper until smooth and shellac. 

10— Shoe Blacking Stand 

Material: Pine or oak as follows: four pieces 13^ inches 
by 13^ inches by 11^ inches; two pieces % inch by 5 inches 
by 1 foot 3^ inch; two pieces ^ inch by 5 inches by 83/^ 
inches; one piece ^ inch by 8 inches by 1 foot 1 inch; two 
pieces % inch by 6 inches by 1 foot 4 inches; one piece 3^ 
inch by 15^ inches by 10 inches; one piece 3^ inch by 1 inch 
by 73^ inches; one piece ^ inch by 23^ inches by 8 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, chisel, brace, bit, 
screw driver, marking gauge and dividers. 

Directions: Plane legs to dimensions. Lay out the 
mortises, as shown, and cut out J^ inch deep. Plane sides 
and ends to dimensions. Lay out and cut tenons. Plane 
bottom and fit in. Plane top. Fasten one half of the top 
to the sides and ends. Fasten other half with hinges. 



84 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



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Figure 84. Shoe blacking stand. 




Figure So. Chicken coop. 

Lay out foot rest, as shown in drawing, and fasten to the 
under side of lower half of top. Glue mortise and tenon 
joints. Sandpaper until smooth. 

11 — Chicken Coop 
Material: Pine as follows: four pieces ^ inch by 12 
inches by 24 feet; two pieces Y2 inch by IJ/^ inches by 2 feet 
10 inches; two pieces Y2 inch by 1 3/2 inches by 1 foot 9 inches; 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 



85 




f^lELl^^^ l^^gl^^^ ^^mf^-^^^^ 

Figure 86. 



Three-horse evener. 



two pieces ^2 inch by 13^ inches by 1 foot 5 inches; two 
pieces 3^ inch by 1}/^ inches by 10 inches. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, square, brace and bit. 

Directions: See drawing. Join the two sides together. 
Nail sides in V shape. Put on slats, front and back. Paint. 

Three-horse Evener 

Material: 
Oak as follows: 
one piece 2 
inches by 6 
inches by 4 feet 
4 inches; one 
piece 2 inches by 
4 inches by 3 
feet; three pieces 2 inches by 3 inches by 2 feet 4 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, wrench, draw knife, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out the stock, as shown. Saw and 
plane to lines. Fit irons to whiffletrees. Bore holes for eye 
bolts and clevises, as shown. Sandpaper and paint. 

13 — Four-horse Evener 
Material: Oak as follows: one piece 2 inches by 6 
inches by 5 feet 4 inches; two pieces 2 inches by 4 inches by 
3 feet; four pieces 2 inches by 3 inches by 2 feet 4 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, wrench, draw knife, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out the stock, as shown. Saw and 

plane to lines. 
Fit irons to 
whiffletrees. 
Bore holes for 
eye bolts and 

Figure 87. Four-horse evener. clevisOS, aS 




86 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



shown. It is not necessary to use strap iron clevises. The 
same kind of irons as used on three-horse evener may be 
used. Sandpaper and paint. 

14 — Five-horse Evener 



To PLOW 




\^^^\^^B 



Material: 

Oak as follows: 
one piece 2 
inches by 7 
inches by 4 feet 
4 inches ; 2 
pieces 2 inches 
by 4 inches by 3 
feet; five pieces 
2 inches by 3 
inches by 2 feet 
4 inches; one 
piece 2 inches by 
6 inches by 1 
foot 6 inches. 

Tools Used: 
Saw, plane, hammer, wrench, draw knife, brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out the stock, as shown. Saw and 
plane to lines. Fit irons to whiffletrees. Bore holes for eye 
bolts and clevises, as shown. It is not necessary to use eye 
bolts. Whiffletree irons and clevises may be used as on 
three-horse evener. Sandpaper and paint 

15— Stock Rack 

Material: Fir as follows: two pieces 3 inches by 6 inches 
by 14 feet. Pine as follows: eight pieces 1 inch by 6 inches 
by 14 feet; six pieces 1 inch by 4 inches by 14 feet; five pieces 
1 inch by 8 inches by 14 feet ship-lap. Oak as follows: five 



Figure 88. Five-horse evener. 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 



87 



pieces 2 inches by 4 inches by 3 feet 2 inches; fourteen pieces 
2 inches by 3 inches by 4 feet 9 inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, hammer, square, wrench, brace and 
bit. 

Directions: Cut the fir stock to dimensions given. Cut 
2-inch by 4-inch oak to size. Bolt the same to stringers, 
using either an 8-inch common bolt or an 8-inch U bolt. 
Bolt on the stake irons, as shown, fitting stakes to same. 
Space off distances for sides, as shown in drawing, bolting 
the same to stakes. Space off distances on the end gate 
stakes and bolt in place. Screw a piece of 1 inch by 4 in- 
ches each side of end gate to hold the same in place using 
end gate rod at the top. Paint. 

T 











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Figure 89. Stock rack. 

16 — Wagon Box 
Material: Yellow poplar or spruce as follows: two pieces 
1 inch by 14 inches by 10 feet 6H inches; two pieces 1 inch 
by 14 inches by 3 feet; twelve pieces 1 inch by 2}4 inches by 
1 foot 2 inches; one piece M inch by 7 inches by 2 feet 93^ 
inches; two pieces 1 inch by 3}4 inches by 2 feet 8 inches. 
Oak as follows: two pieces 2 inches by 4 inches by 3 feet 2 
inches; two pieces 2 inches by 4 inches by 4 feet. Twelve 
pieces 1 inch by 4 inches 12 foot fir flooring. One set of 
wagon box irons. 



88 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOY 8 



M 



W 



-/o'—a" 



- /O - 6i 



T 'T 



HfV 



H^'h 






-3-2i- 



Figure 90. Wagon box. 

Tools Used: Saw, hammer, square, dividers, keyhole 
saw, wrench, brace, bit and screw driver. 

Directions: Cut the 2-inch by 4-inch oak to dimensions. 
Cut the flooring and nail to 2-inch by 4-inch oak. Rivet 
side irons to wagon box sides. Screw the cleats in place, 
as shown, then bolt them to the bottom. Cut end gates 
to dimensions. Screw cleats in place. Bolt the foot rest 
irons in place on the front of the end gate, bolting the foot 
rest to the same. Place the end gates in position, boring 
holes for end gate rods. Screw the 1-inch by 3H-inch 
by 2 feet 8-inch pieces in place and bolt the side brace 
irons on, as shown. Sandpaper and paint. 

17— Farm Gate 

Farm gates are too often allowed to sag and become a 
nuisance. A simple rigid gate may be made as follows: 
Saw six four-inch pine boards of ordinary thickness the 
length of the opening between the posts. If the posts are 
not set, place them twelve feet apart, as a gate that wide 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 



89 




Figure 91. Farm gate. 



is sometimes necessary. If the lumber is not already dressed, 
plane both surfaces and the edges. Using the same kind 
of lumber, saw two crosspieces for the ends, each four feet 
two inches long. Nail the six boards to these ends, keeping 
the top and bottom boards one inch from the ends of the 
crosspieces, as shown in the drawing. The spaces between 
the boards should be narrow at the bottom of the gate to 
prevent small animals from getting through. The drawing 
shows three inches for the first space, three and three fourths 
for the second, four and three fourths for the third, six for 
the fourth, and six and one half for the top space. These 
spaces should be accurately measured and marked before 
the boards are fastened. As soon as the boards are fastened 
lay a four-inch board diagonally across the gate from the 
lower hinge end to the upper other end. Mark and saw to 
fit. Nail to each board and clinch the nails. Using another 
four-inch piece of board, lay it so that one end is just even 
with the upper edge of the top board about three feet from 
the hinge end of the gate. Mark it to fit the diagonal brace. 
Saw and nail to the four boards and toenail to the diagonal. 
In a similar manner cut and fit a brace for the lower part of 
the gate at about seven and one half feet from the hinge end. 
Sometimes double bracing is desired and boards are fastened 
on each side of the gate. In this event it is best to use bolts 



90 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR B0Y8 

instead of nails, and a third hinge will be needed to support 
the extra weight. Use strong hinges. Give the gate two 
coats of good paint. 

18 — Bracing Comer Posts 

It is sometimes said that the corner post is half the fence. 
Without a good corner post there can be no good fence. 
Notice any fence where the wire has sagged and you can 
usually trace the trouble to the corner. The strain has 
either pulled the post part way out or the post has not re- 
mained perpendicular. If barbed wire is allowed to sag in 
this manner, it becomes extremely dangerous to stock. 

A corner post should be larger and one or two feet longer 
than the ordinary post. The hole should be dug correspond- 
ingly deeper and large enough to have plenty of room for 
setting. If a wooden post is used, short pieces of plank may 
be securely nailed at right angles to each other near the 
bottom of the post to prevent the wire from pulling the 
posts up. The hole may be partly filled with rock and the 
spaces filled with earth tamped in solidly or, better still, 
with cement. After almost filling the hole with earth, more 
rock should be placed at the surface. At the bottom of the 
post and at the surface of the earth are the places of greatest 
strain. See that the post is set so that it is perpendicular. 

Bracing the post is the most important part of the pro- 
cess. Heavy poles may be used, or a four by four, if avail- 
able. Saw a notch in the corner post about ten inches from 
the top and another in the brace post about the same dis- 
tance from the bottom. Drive the brace firmly into these 
notches. In the same manner connect the corner post with 
the other post. The two fence posts nearest to the corner 
are used for brace posts. Using strong wire, brace the bot- 
tom of the corner post to the top of the two brace posts. 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 91 

being careful to draw the wire tight and fasten it securely. 
Such a corner post will not give trouble. Setting a corner 
post and bracing it may be demonstrated on the school 
grounds very easily, if it seems desirable. 

19— Road Drag 

One of the most useful implements for road work is the 
King drag, or more commonly known as the ' 'split-log" 
drag. It bears the name of the man who first made known 
its utility. It is made from a ten or twelve-inch log split 
in two. The halves are faced the same way and fastened 
about three feet apart with wooden bars. A chain is at- 
tached in the direction of the smooth faces and the drag 
drawn at an angle that will cause the earth to be pushed 
toward the center of the road. The 'drag may now be pur- 
chased in an improved form, but it is a good exercise for 
farm boys to make one, and for a rural school, where there 
are boys old enough, to do the work. 

Suggest to the school board or to the officers of the 
farmers' club in the district that the school be allowed to 
keep the road in repair near the school for a distance of 
eighty rods or a half-mile, as seems best. Make a drag and 
''borrow" a team from home, the older boys taking turns. 
The road should be dragged very soon after each rain while 
the soil is still moist. A mistake is often made in allowing the 
road to get too dry before the drag is put on. Other stu- 
dents can assist 
in various ways 
in keeping the 
piece of road in 
repair. If neigh- 
boring schools 
Figure 92. Spiit-iordrag. enter into a con- 




92 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

test for the best piece of road, and disinterested judges are ap- 
pointed for the annual inspection, a great deal of interest 
can be maintained and much valuable knowledge learned 
about road work. If prizes are offered, still greater interest 
will prevail. Any group of ''live boys" in a school district 
can get such a contest started. 

To make the drag, get a log about ten inches in diameter 
and seven feet long. If there is a sawmill near, have the log 
sawed lengthwise. If not, split it carefully in two, and with 
a sharp ax or adz make the split surfaces smooth. From 
some hard and tough wood, such as maple or ironwood, 
make three crosspieces each three feet six inches long. 
With an ax or drawshave trim these down to two inches in 
diameter. With a two-inch auger bore a hole a few inches 
from one end of one piece of the log. Bore another hole two 
and a half feet from this one and another five feet from the 
first. These holes should be made at an angle of about 
thirty degrees. (See illustration.) In a similar manner bore 
holes in the other half of the log, keeping the angle in such 
a direction that the crosspieces will fit. Before fastening 
the pieces of the log together, arrange them so that the 
hole near the end of the front piece is at the left, and the 
one farthest from the end in the back piece at the left. Drive 
the pieces together and wedge the braces securely. Another 
brace, a two by four or something heavier, should be fastened 
near the end of the front piece to the end of the back piece 
near the other brace. This brace will strengthen the drag 
where the greatest strain occurs. If possible, get a piece of 
iron plate, and have four holes drilled in it at a blacksmith's. 
Place this plate on the bottom and cutting end of the front 
part of the drag. This plate will make the drag wear and 
cut better. It should be firmly fastened with countersink 
bolts. A chain about twelve feet long is fastened about 



HOME PROJECTS IN WOODWORK 93 

the middle of the log at the right end of the drag and extends 
over the top of the log at the left end and is fastened to the 
round brace. The team is hitched to the chain at about 
three feet from the end at the right. If desired, a bottom 
may be made of boards fastened to the braces. 

If it seems impossible to construct a full sized drag and 
make use of it in road contests between schools as here sug- 
gested, much benefit can be derived from discussions and the 
making of miniature road drags, culverts and bridges as 
part of tbe knife work in manual training. 



CHAPTER VI 
HOME PROJECTS IN CEMENT AND IRON 

As wood and lumber have become scarcer it has been 
more and more necessary to substitute other materials for 
them. Metals, especially iron and steel, have been in use 
for a long time, but recently a mixture known as concrete 
has come into general use on the farm as well as elsewhere. 
Less than fifty years ago the first cement mill in the United 
States was built in Pennsylvania. Now the annual output 
is approximately one hundried million barrels, and is in- 
creasing rapidly. 

Cement is the basis of concrete. There are two kinds — 
the natural and the artificial. The former is found in the 
natural state, is burned, ground into a powder and put on 
the market. But little of this kind is now used. Portland 
cement, the best known artificial cement, has been so named, 
because it resembles a stone quarried near Portland, Eng- 
land. It is made by heating lime and clay in a special 
furnace. The principal ingredients of cement are siUca; 
lime, iron oxide and alumina. It may be purchased in 
paper sacks, cloth sacks and in bulk, but the common form 
is the cloth sack which contains ninety-four pounds net. 
A sack of cement is approximately one cubic foot. Four 
sacks make a barrel. Sacks may always be returned to 
dealers and ten cents credit obtained for each. Cement 
must not be allowed to get wet, or even damp, as mois- 
ture hardens it and renders it unfit for use. It should 
be stored in a dry place, and never allowed to lie on the 
ground. 

94 



HOME PROJECTS IX CEMEXT AXD IROX 95 

CONCRETE WORK 

Concrete is made from a mixture of cement, sand, gravel 
and water. Great care must be taken in selecting and pre- 
paring this mixture. The sand must be sharp and free 
from all finer particles. If it contains clay, it should be 
washed and screened until only the coarse sand remains. 
Screening is very important, as the cement will then stick 
to the sand firmly and make a strong mixture. The gravel 
also should be coarse. A screen with a one fourth inch 
sieve is generally used for separating the sand from the 
gravel. That which passes through is sand and that which 
does not pass, is gravel. Gravel with a diameter of more 
than one and one half inches should not be used. 

Mixing the materials is a very important part of the 
process. A common mixture is that known as the 1:2:4, 
meaning one part by volume of cement, two parts of sand 
and four parts of gravel. Each batch of concrete should be 
some multiple of this proportion. Sand and gravel must 
not be used indiscriminately as taken from the pit. Crushed 
rock is still better than screened gravel and should be used 
where it can be obtained. Care must be used, however, 
not to use soft rock or shale that will be affected by the 
weather, as concrete can be no stronger than its weakest 
ingredient. 

The cement and sand should first be thoroughly mixed 
and then added to the coarse gravel or crushed rock. Mix 
all carefully before adding the water. Use only pure water 
and add to form a mortar just thin enough to run into molds. 

Green concrete is easily cracked and must be protected 
while curing. The quality of the product will be largely 
determined by the way it is cured. During the first two or 
three days, concrete must be kept wet and covered with 
burlap or some other suitable material. It should be 



96 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

sprinkled for several days and should not be used for a 
long time. 

Uses of Concrete on the Farm 

Walks. Every farm home should have some concrete 
walks, if not more than a few feet leading to the doors. 
Some farmsteads have concrete walks leading from the 
house to the barn and other outbuildings. Where the labor 
can be done at home and the materials, except the cement, 
obtained on the farm, the cost is very little. 

The ground should be excavated to a depth of from 
eight to twelve inches, depending upon the climate, and a 
subfoundation of stone, gravel or cinders laid. The soil 
should be well packed before putting in the subfoundation. 
The latter is usually from four to six inches deep and should 
be drained, if necessary, to prevent water from standing in 
it, as water would freeze in cold weather and break the 
walk by upheaval. The subfoundation must be well tamped 
before laying the foundation. 

The foundation is usually three or four inches deep and 
may be mixed in the proportion of 1:3:6, if coarse sand or 
crushed rock is used. The concrete should be laid rather 
soft so that when it is being packed down, moisture may be 
seen on the top. 

A top-dressing, or wearing coat, of one half to one inch 
is made of cement mortar, one part of cement to two parts 
of sharp sand or fine screenings of crushed rock being used. 
This gives a smooth and hard wearing surface. 

The walk must be divided into sections by cutting en- 
tirely through with a trowel or other sharp instrument. 
These sections should not be larger than eighteen inches or 
two feet square to prevent cracking. A list of tools needed 
and specific directions for constructing the walk may be 
obtained from any bulletin on concrete. 



HOME PROJECTS IN CEMENT AND TRON 97 

Basement Floors. A concrete basement or cellar floor 
has been found to be serviceable and economical. This 
kind of floor may be constructed in the same manner as the 
walks, excepting, perhaps, that greater care must be exerted 
to secure good drainage for the subfoundation. Division 
into small sections is not so necessary, four being* sufficient 
for an average room. It is well to slope the floor slightly 
toward one corner and drain from that corner. 

Stable Floors. If properly constructed, there is no good 
reason why horse stables, as well as cow barns, should not 
have concrete floors, which are economical and much more 
sanitary than wooden floors. Since a greater strength is 
required for this kind of floor, the foundation should be 
about six inches thick. A one-inch wearing surface will 
then be sufficient. Construct the same as for walks. A 
rough finish will prevent the animals from slipping. 

Fence Posts. As fence posts become more and more 
expensive there is an increasing demand for a substitute for 
the wooden post. Concrete posts may be made for eighteen 
or twenty cents each, not counting the labor, and if properly 
constructed will last indefinitely. For reinforcement, wire 
or small steel rods may be used. Sometimes old fence wire 
may be utilized with little or no extra expense. One piece 
of steel or wire in each corner of the post about an inch 
from the surface is the common method of reinforcement. 

Molds are made of wood in any desired size and shape. 
A tapering post is cheaper than a rectangular one, and just 
as useful in most cases. Posts are usually molded in a 
horizontal position, as that method is simpler than the verti- 
cal. The molds are made of dressed lumber, preferably one 
and one half inches thick. From one to a dozen molds 
may be used at the same time. They should be so con- 
structed that the ends may be let down and the boards 

7-^ 



98 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

between the posts released to take out the posts when dry 
enough. A bulletin on concrete from the state experiment 
station will give complete directions for making the molds, 
which lack of space prevents giving here. 

The mixture is usually of a 1:23^:5 proportion, although 
1:2:4 and 1:3:6 mixtures are sometimes used. The greatest 
possible care must be exerted to get the proper grades of 
sand and gravel, as a small amount of earth or clay in the 
sand will make the post worthless. The concrete is run into 
the molds and smoothed off with a trowel. The posts must 
be handled very carefully while ''green" and should not be 
used for about three months after making. 

Concrete Blocks. Concrete or ''cement" building blocks 
are now quite common. Several different forms are made, 
but most of them are of hollow construction, not only to 
save material but also to provide a "dead air" space to 
make the temperature in the building more equable. These 
blocks are often made on the farm from homemade molds 
the desired shape and size for foundations and small build- 
ings. If large quantities are desired, it would be more 
economical for several persons to co-operate and purchase 
a machine for making the blocks. See a bulletin for com- 
plete directions. 

Other Uses. Concrete is also commonly used in the 
construction of hog troughs, drinking tanks, cesspools, cul- 
verts, etc. To construct some of these is beyond the ability 
of school boys. Hog troughs may easily be made of a 1:2:4 
mixture poured into a homemade form the desired size and 
shape. The common V shape is easily made, but the bot- 
tom should be slightly rounded so that no food will remain 
and sour. 

Boys who have selected some of the concrete work for 
"home credit" tasks have been delighted with what they 



HOME PROJECTS IN CEMENT AND IRON 99 

have learned about it. Some of the work suggested can be 
done at school. 

WHITEWASHING 

Every boy should know how to make and use whitewash. 
Outbuildings of all kinds can be kept sweet and clean by 
its use. Start with a small building, such as a chicken 
coop. Better results are obtained by using a brush than 
by a spray, although it requires more time. After the first 
application is thoroughly dry a second may be put on, if 
desired. 

The Government whitewash discussed in some of the 
Farmers' Bulletins is the best. It may be made as follows: 
Put two pecks of quickhme in a boiler or washtub. Cover 
the lime with hot water and put a lid on the boiler. Let 
stand until all the lime is slaked, then strain it. Dissolve 
one peck of common salt in hot water and add to the lime. 
Boil about three pounds of rice to a thin paste and add this 
to the mixture. Dissolve one pound of glue in a gallon of 
warm water. Put about half a pound of powdered Spanish 
whiting into the glue, and mix all thoroughly with the lime. 
Let stand a few days. This mixture makes a much more 
durable, presentable and sanitary whitewash than the ordi- 
nary forms and it is inexpensive. Reheat before using, if 
possible. For use in damp, interior places, omit the glue. 
Cow barns and stables may be much improved by applying 
whitewash at least once a year. 

IRON WORK 

Care of Forge. To build a fire, clean out the little pocket 
in the forge, known as the tweir. Place clean shavings in 
the tweir, putting coke over the shavings, and light the 
fire, giving it a slow draft. After the coke is burning put 



100 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOTS 



on coal until the fire is built up quite high. Bank around 
with wet coal. Use the best '\smithy" coal obtainable. 
Keep the fire free from clinkers, shaking it down occasion- 
ally. Keep the clinker trap under the forge clean. 

Methods of Heating. Iron can be heated to a much 
greater degree without burning than steel. Steel should 
never be heated beyoQd a cherry red for ordinary work, 
such as drawing out or punching. Blacksmiths speak of 
heating iron to a red heat, white heat and a welding heat. 
Beginners should use the red heat at first to avoid burning. 



Tools for Blacksmith Shop 



Anvil, 75 or 100 pounds 
Blacksmith's leg vise 
Forge, 18 or 20-inch hearth 
Stock and set of dies 
Cold chisel 
Hardy 



1 Straight lip tongs 

1 Bolt tongs 

1 Tin snips 

1 Ball-peen hammer, 1-pound 

1 Cross-peen hammer, 2-pound 

1 Blowtorch 



1 Soldering iron 




FORGING 
1— Figure 8 

Material: Mild steel or wrought iron, % 
inch round by 8 inches long. 

Tools Used: Hammer and tongs. 

Directions:' Heat the iron to required 
heat, bending it over horn of anvil. As this 
is a bending exercise, care should be taken 
to get the eyes as near alike as possible. 



Figure 93. 
Figure 8 bending 
exercise as it ap- 
pears when fin- 
ished. 



2— Gate Hook 

Material: Mild steel or wrought iron, ^ 
inch round by 33/^ inches long. 
Tools Used: Hammer and tongs. 

Directions: Heat iron to bright red. Draw out to }4 
inch square, as shown. Heat one end about 1 inch, placing 
edge on anvil and letting it extend from front edge of anvil 



HOME PROJECTS IN CEMENT AND IRON 



101 



3m^^ 



on the face about % inch. 
Then hammer down, mak- 
ing a shoulder. Round 
this end out to 'j/g inch. 
Bend to make eye, as 
shown, so that it fits into 
shoulder. Draw out other 
end round about 2 inches, making it slightly pointed, 
to shape over horn of anvil. Heat center of hook 



Figure 94. Gate hook. A-Round iron. 
B-A drawn out square. C-Finished hook. 



Bend 
Hold 



with two pairs of tongs, one on each side and about 1 inch 
apart. Then twist, making one complete turn. Straighten 
hook, using mallet and block. 



3 — Making an Angle 
1 ^^ Material: 



Figure 95. Making a right angle. A-Iron 
bar after heating and upsetting for bend- 
ing. B-Finished angle. 



Mild steel 



or wrought iron, 3^ inch 
by }/2 inch by 7 inches. 

Tools Used: Hammer 
and tongs. 

Directions: Heat the 
piece in the center about 1 
inch and upset, either b}^ 
placing one end on anvil 
and hammering down on the other end or butting against 
anvil. Then reheat in center and bend either over edge of 
anvil or in vise. Then square up, keeping the stock to the 
same dimension. 

4— Bent Hook 

Material: Mild steel or wrought iron, % inch round 
and 7 inches long. 

Tools Used: Hammer and tongs. 

Directions: Draw out one end slightly pointed, as in A. 
Bend the eye over the horn of anvil, as shown in B. Bend 



102 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 





hook over the horn of the 
anvil, care being taken to 
have the eye come straight 
with the center of hook, as 
shown in C. 

5— Lap Weld 

This weld is the most 
used and it is also the 
easiest to make and the 
strongest, if properly done. 
The first thing to do in pre- 
paring this weld is to upset 
the end, which can be done 
by heating a short distance 
back from the end, then 
placing the hot end on the 

.- „ . Figure 96. Bent hook. A-Iron drawn out 

anvil while hammermg on and pointed. B-After completing the 
, , .1. J mi r ^y^- C-Completed hook. 

the other end. Then scarf 

off the ends, as shown in the drawings, having scarf side 
slightly convex. Scarf should never be concave, as it would 
form a pocket for scales, cinders and gas, making a poor 
weld. In welding, bring the iron 
to a welding or fusing heat, or, as 
some blacksmiths say, until it starts 
to flow. Always place the pieces to 
be welded so that they can be seen. 
One cannot weld with a dirty fire. 
Be sure that there are no clinkers or anything else to clog the 
fire. Do not get the iron too near the tweir or too close to the 
top, as the cold air will cause scales and you will be unable 
to make a good weld. Care should be taken that the iron is 
not burned, a good weld cannot be made with burned iron. 



Figure 97. Lap, or scarf, weld 
A-Stock upset and scarfed, 
B-Top view of A. 



HOME PROJECTS IX CEMEXT AND IRON 103 

If, when you are heating for a weld, you see sparks, or, as some 
say, diamonds, going out of your fire, you will know that 
the iron is burning. The best thing to do is to take it out 
and cut off the burned part and scarf it over. Welding is 
one of the most difficult things to learn in forging and it 
takes a great deal of practice. It is a good plan for beginners 
to take short pieces, as shown in the drawing, and practice 
until they can make a good weld. If care is taken in upset- 
ting and scarfing, the stock will be considerably larger at the 
weld. This extra thickness you can forge down with a 
hammer. If the work is well done, it will be impossible to 
see the weld. 

6 — Link, Ring and Washer 
^ ^ ^ Material: Mild steei or 

wrought iron, ^^i inch round 
and 7 inches long. 

Tools Used: Hammer 

Figure 98. Link exercise. A-Stock show- ^ 

ing method of scarfing. B-Stock bent "niVft/'+i/^nc • TTrkcof hnih 

into link ready to weld. C-End view UlTeCtlOnS. Upsei DOtU 

showing scarfs in place. ^^^^ ^^^^ y^^^^^ StOCk iu tllC 

shape of a U, scarfing, as shown in the drawing; then bend 
the two ends so that the scarfs come together, as shown; 
heat to welding heat and weld on anvil. In making chains, 
two links are welded separately and linked to the third and 
the third then welded. In a similar manner make a ring and 
a washer. 

7— Fagot Welded Hook 

Material: Mild steel or wrought iron, Vg inch round by 
8 inches long. 

Tools Used: Hammer and tongs. 

Directions: Bend the e^^e in the center of the stock, as 
shown, bringing the two sides together and keeping them at 




104 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 




Figure 99. Fagot welded hook. 
A-Stock bent into shape for 
welding. B-Finished hook. 



even lengths. Place in the fire and 
bring to welding heat, starting the 
weld at the eye and working to the 
end. Draw out the stock to a ^- 
inch diameter, point off end, as 
shown, and bend over the horn of 
anvil, keeping the eye and the cen- 
ter of the hook on a line. In this 
way a very strong hook is made 
which can be used in a great many 

places where the bent hook would not stand. This is 

known as the fagot method of welding. 

8— Split Forging I 

To make a hole 1 inch round in 
a flat bar that is only 1 inch wide, 
split the bar, as shown in A of the 
drawing, and punch a little hole at 
each end of the split to prevent 
further splitting. Then drive a 
punch in the split and form the 
hole by swelling out the end of 
the bar. This is one form of split 
forging. 




Figure 100. Split forging I. 
A-Stock split and end rounded. 
B-Completed product by this 
method. 



fl 



Figure 101. Split Forging II. 
A-Stock laid out. B-Stock cut 
out and worked to shape. 



9— Split Forging II 

This is another kind of split 
forging that is very handy. Cut 
out shaded parts, as shown in A 
of the drawing, and work out to 
shape, as shown in B. A great 
variety of shapes can be made by 
using this method of work. 



HOME PROJECTS IN CEMENT AND IRON 



105 










B 













Figure 102. Split Forging III. 
A-Stock split aa directed in 
Split Forging I. B-Stock 
worked to shape. 



round the ends over 
edge of anvil; punch a small 
hole in the bottom of the 
jaw and cut out, as indi- 
cated by the dotted lines in 
B; then finish as shown in 
C. Bend the other end in 
the opposite direction. The 
two jaws should be of dif- 
ferent sizes. Do not harden. 



10— Split Forging III 

This is also a kind of split forg- 
ing. If a +-shaped piece is wanted, 
split, as shown, and work out to 
required shape. The drawings show 
what is meant by this exercise. 

11— S Wrench 

The S wrench is a form of split 
forging. To make one, tool steel 
should be used and the stock must 
vary to comply with size of wrench 
wanted. Place the bar edgewise 
over the anvil and work out the 
shoulders; next draw out the stock 
towards the center as shown in A; 
the 





Figure 103. S Wrench. A-Stock with 
shoulders worked out. B-Rounded, holes 
punched, ready for splitting. C-Jaw 
worked out and shaped. 



CHAPTER VII 

HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTTOE 

There is no richer field for the application of scientific 
principles than that of the home project work in agriculture. 
It should not be the aim of any school, not even the agri- 
cultural college, to turn out scientists only. Such training 
is useful only to the extent that it can be made practical. 
While it is desirable to encourage home projects in general 
and to give suitable credit in school for such work, it is 
absolutely necessary to correlate it with the school work in 
agriculture, if definite results are to be obtained. It is not so 
much a matter of the leadership of the school as it is of intel- 
ligent co-operation on the part of the home and the farm. 

If there is a farmers' club in the communitj^, that is the 
proper organization to become affiliated with the school for 
the promotion of this kind of work. If not, the school 
must get the interest of the farmers of the district. The 
home exercises given in this chapter should be discussed in 
school, but carried out at home. These projects will sug- 
gest others. 

SOIL STUDY 

All soils have been formed from the rock of the earth's 
crust, by the action of wind, water, heat and other agencies. 
Gravel, sand, silt and clay are kinds of soil classified accord- 
ing to the size of the soil particles. Animal and vegetable 
decaying matter in the soil is called humus. Humus con- 
tains much plant food. Mineral plant food is ''locked up" 
in the soil. Weathering and cultivation make this food 
available to the plant. A mixture of different kinds of soils 

106 



HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTURE 107 

is called a loam. If a soil contains more sand than clay, it 
is a sandy loam. If more clay than sand is present, it is a 
clay loam. The fertile lands in the great corn belt are 
chiefly silt loams. Soil management, and consequently to 
a large degree farm management, must depend upon the 
character of the soil; hence, the value of an elementary 
study of soils. 

For a soil tube, make a box two inches square at the 
ends, inside measurement, and four feet long. Get glass 
cut to fit one side so as to have a glass front. Fasten the 
soil tube in a vertical position and fill it with soil from an 
average farm just as it is found and arranged in the ground, 
the subsoil below and the surface soil on top. The tube 
can be filled best from an excavation for a cellar or well, 
as 3^ou can then see each layer of soil. More than one 
sample should be obtained, if the soils of the farms in the 
district are uneven. In case it is not possible to make or 
procure a soil tube for the school, bring from each farm 
represented samples of top soil, of soil six inches below the 
surface, and one, two, three and four feet below the surface, 
and study these in class. What plants send roots deeper 
than four feet? What has the subsoil to do with moisture? 
Why are sandy soils called light soils? Weigh equal volumes 
of sand, loam and clay. Which is the heaviest? Measure 
water and pour it into the different kinds of soils and deter- 
mine which will hold the most water. What kind of soil 
makes the best subsoil? Why? Fill five lamp chimneys 
partly full of gravel, sand, loam, clay and leaf mold respec- 
tively, tying cloth over the bottom ends and submerging 
these ends about an inch. Water will rise by capillary 
action. In which does it rise most? Least? Put about an 
inch of dust on the top of the loam and note how high the 
moisture rises. How does the result show the value of a 



108 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

dust mulch in cultivated crops? Your school can make a 
local soil survey that will be very valuable to the farmers 
of the community. 

MINIATURE FARM 

Many important problems in farm management may be 
shown in a miniature model farm. It is a general principle 
of rotation that grass should follow a grain crop, and a cul- 
tivated crop succeed a grass crop. In a simple three-year 
rotation these crops would follow in order every three years. 
In a four-year plan the hay land would be pastured the 
second year, before plowing up the sod for the cultivated 
crop. In a five-year rotation it is customary to have two 
grain crops in succession. An ideal arrangement is to divide 
the farm into as many equal fields as there are years in the 
system of rotation adopted. It can easily be shown that 
the shape of the field has a great deal to do with the number 
of rods of fence per acre required to enclose it. Although 
long fields require more fencing, they are more economical 
in plowing, seeding and harvesting than square fields. The 
location and size of the farmstead is an important item in 
farm management. The germination of seeds, differences 
in color and shape of the blades of different kinds of grain, 
rate of growth of each during twenty-four hours, the root 
systems, etc., are worth careful observation. All these and 
other important facts may be studied much better from the 
miniature farm than from books. A few weeks before school 
closes in the spring is the best time for this study. The facts 
can be observed also on farms in the vicinity at this time. 

Make a box three feet square and about three inches 
deep. Fill it with pulverized soil or with sawdust. If the 
latter is used, soak it well before packing it firmly into the 
box. In some ways sawdust is the better, as it will not get 



HOME CREDIT WORK IN AG RI CULT (J RE 



109 



JO Acres Grain 








30 Acres Grain 


I 

1 
1 


30 Acres Hay 


50 Acres Pasture 


1 

1 


1 


Minor 


Re tar, en 


Picti 





Figure 104. Diagram of a farm showing location of crops for one year in a five- 
year rotation. Farm buildings and calf and hog lots — the minor rotation 
plots — are located in farmstead of ten acres. 



hard, and it retains moisture well. As the seed contains all 
the nourishment needed for two or three weeks' growth, it 
is unnecessary to use soil. For the fence, use toothpicks or 
splints and put one every inch around the outside of the 
''farm," allowing them to stick up about an inch above the 
surface of the sawdust. Supposing your ''farm" represents 
160 acres and you desire a five-year rotation, you can allow 
ten acres for the farmstead and thirty acres for each of the 



110 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



Suggestive Rotations 

Three-Year Plan 



Year 


Field A 


Field B 


Field C 


1916 
1917 
1918 


Grain 

Cloyer 

Corn 


Clover 

Corn 

Grain 


Corn 
Grain 
Clover 


Four-Year Plan 


Year 


Field A 


Field B 


Field C 


Field D 


1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 


Grain 
Meadow 
Pasture 
Corn 


Meadow 
Pasture 
Corn 
Grain 


Pasture 
Corn 
Grain 
Meadow 


Corn 
Grain 
Meadow 
Pasture 


Five- Year Plan 


Year 


Field A 


Field B 


Field C 


Field D 


Field E 


1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 
1920 


Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 


Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 


Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

Grain 


Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 


Corn 

Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 



five fields. To fence these, mark off nine inches (represent- 
ing 40 rods) from the east line on the south side and place a 
dot on the edge of the box. Do the same on the north side, 
and run a toothpick fence between the dots parallel to the 
east line. Run a similar fence nine inches from and parallel 
to the south line. This plan will make a square ten-acre 
farmstead in the southeast corner and two thirty-acre fields, 
one on the east and on the south. Divide the remaining 
space into three equal fields, and you will have the ideal 
arrangement for a five-year rotation. Build a toothpick 
fence for a lane from the farmstead to the north field and 
your fencing will be complete. The accompanying diagram 
shows the plan. Sow grain in the two fields farthest north, 
timothy and clover in the two fields farthest south to repre- 



HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTURE 111 

sent hay in one and pasture in the other, and corn in the 
east field. This arrangement of the fields will represent the 
farm as it would appear one year in five after the rotation 
had become established. In actual field conditions, of 
course, the timothy and clover are seeded down with the 
preceding grain crop. 

Small buildings may be made from colored paper and 
located on the farmstead. With toothpicks lay out fields 
for a five-year minor rotation plan within the farmstead 
for the hog and calf pastures. 

Plan a three and a four-year rotation farm. Bring a 
plan of your home farm and see if you can improve it by re- 
planning and establishing a system of rotation, if one is not 
already used. Try a model farm on a large plot at home 
next spring. 

GERMINATION TESTS 

Students should become thoroughly familiar with the 
common methods of seed testing for grains and grasses. 
From your references, find out how to use the ''rag doll" for 
corn testing, the ''soup plate" and other methods of testing 
grass and small grain seed, and test some of the seed to be 
used on the farm. Seed testing is good agricultural work for 
February and March. Make a seed corn tester as follows: 

Using box lumber or other available material, make a 
box twenty inches long, twenty inches wide and two inches 
deep, inside measurements. Mix sawdust with water until 
it is saturated and pack it firmly into the box. Cut a piece 
of cotton the size of the bottom of the box inside and mark 
it off into two-inch squares. This will make 100 squares, 
affording space to test 100 ears at once. Place the cotton 
cloth over the moist sawdust and take five kernels from the 
middle part of each ear and put them in the squares. Cover 



112 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 















. 








1 






" 




































-i^ 






















\. 














































^ 




































































































































_ _ 





















Figure 105. 



Seed corn tester, show- 
ing squares. 



with another cloth or with a glass 
to hold the moisture. Keep the 
tester in a warm room of even 
temperature. Examine every 
twenty-four hours for five days 
and tabulate the results. When 
do the kernels begin to sprout? 
Does the root or top shoot 
start first? Are some sprouts 
more vigorous than others and 
what does this fact show? Dis- 
card all the ears that do not 
show 100% of strong germination, as only the latter kind of 
seed should be saved for planting. 

GARDEN WORK 
Select a rich piece of soil, well drained and free from 
weeds. The size will depend upon circumstances and may 
vary from a few square feet for the youngest boys and girls 
to a large tract for a commercial garden for the older ones. 
About thirty feet is a good length for a row but the garden 
may be as long or as wide as desired. The garden should 
be plowed early enough in the fall to check the growth of 
weeds and to bring buried weed seeds to the surface where ' 
they will germinate and be killed by frost. Fall plowing 
also disturbs the eggs or pupae of various kinds of insects 
and many of them are destroyed. A heavy coat of well 
rotted barnyard manure should be plowed under, and the 
soil harrowed a few times to conserve the moisture. As 
soon as it is dry in the spring, the soil should be thoroughly 
pulverized with a disk and harrowed until fine. Do as much 
of the labor with horses as possible. 

The garden should be planned during the winter and the 
seeds purchased in time to test them. Better still, save 



HOME CREDIT WORK IX AGRICULTURE 113 

some of your own seed. The students of a school might well 
plan their gardens together as part of their agricultural 
work, exchanging varieties of home grown seed and thus 
saving the expense of purchasing. The testing should be 
done at school a few weeks before the seed is needed. Plats 
of each garden may be planned and drawn, and approved 
by parents and teacher. The plat should be drawn to scale 
and show what the garden is to contain and where each 
kind of seed is to be planted. Then follow the working 
drawing when the garden is being planted. Copies of 
the plat should be preserved at school and at home for 
reference. 

A few principles of gardening should be kept in mind. 
Plant the smallest vegetables, such as onions, carrots, beets, 
etc., in a part of the garden by themselves in rows about 
sixteen inches apart. The larger things, as corn and pota- 
toes, should be far enough apart to use a horse cultivator, 
unless the garden is very small. Space should be left and 
kept cultivated for plants that are to be transplanted, such 
as cabbage, tomatoes, cauliflower, celery, etc. These should 
be started earl}" in window boxes. If done at school, one 
box of each variety will be sufficient for the entire school. 
The school should have a hotbed made and cared for by the 
students. Borrow the storm sashes from the home, if neces- 
sary. In case the garden soil is dry when the seed is planted, 
it should be packed and made firm over the row. This 
packing will enable capillary action to bring the soil water 
to the surface. A dust mulch between the rows while the 
plants are growing will conserve the moisture. Do not al- 
low weeds in your garden. A weed is ''any plant out of 
place." Get some bulletins on gardening, keep records of 
your receipts and expenditures and exhibit your products 
at the school in the fall. 



114 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR B078 

WEED COLLECTION 

Weeds do millions of dollars' worth of damage annually, 
a large part of which could be saved, if the boys and girls 
learned to identify them in school and later practiced the 
proper methods of eradication on the farm. All weeds come 
under three general classes — annual, those that produce seed 
and die during one season; biennial, those that grow to 
maturity, produce seed and die the second season; and 
perennial, those that live on year after year and produce 
seed annually. Examples of annual weeds are pigeon grass, 
mustard, wild oat and Russian thistle; biennials are repre- 
sented by burdock and bull thistle; and some of the worst 
perennials are Canada thistle, quack grass, dandelion and 
yellow dock. Perennial weeds are particularly obnoxious, 
because many of them produce new plants from the roots 
as well as from the seed. Methods of eradication, or ways 
of getting rid of weeds, depend upon the class to which they 
belong. Annuals and biennials must be prevented from 
seeding, but prevention of seeding is not sufficient for the 
perennials, and some way of pulling or kilhng the roots must 
be devised. Rotation of crops is the best general method 
of destroying and preventing weeds, but spraying, smother- 
ing, pulling by hand and other methods are employed. Study 
bulletins and other references on weeds for further infor- 
mation. 

Make a herbarium. Use oak tag or other stiff paper and 
allow a page each, of about ten by fifteen inches, for about 
twenty-five weeds. With the aid of the references, the 
teacher and the farmers in the community, collect twenty- 
five of the worst weeds in your school district. Press them 
and mount in your herbarium. If possible, get leaves, flower 
or seed and a thin section of the root. Write a description 
of the weed, give the class to which it belongs and state how 



HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTURE 



115 



best to get rid of it. Make a case for a permanent exhibit 
for the schoolhouse as class work. Get twenty-five small 
"pill" bottles about two inches long at the drug store and 
after thoroughly drying the seed, fill each bottle with one 
kind of weed seed. Label each bottle and make a thin 
wooden case to hold the collection. Collecting weeds may 
be made an individual exercise as well as the basis for a 
general school collection. It is interesting to note the differ- 
ent kinds of seed dispersal, such as wind, water, animals, etc., 
and to classify a collection on this basis. After becoming 
familiar with the weed seeds, test samples of grains and grass 
seed for purity as part of your agricultural work. Use 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 428 and others from your own state 
for this work. 

INSECT COLLECTION 
Insects probably do more damage to the crops of the 
United States than weeds. Not all, however, are injurious. 
Some are very beneficial in destroying injurious insects. 




Figure 106. Hessian fly, showing larva, pupa and adult, or fly; greatly enlarged. 



116 



INDUSTRIAL WORE FOR BOYS 




Figure 107. Typical beetle, the asparagus beetle, showing (a) adult, (b) egg, 
(c) young larva, (d) full grown larva, (e) pupa; enlarged. (Chittenden.) 

Students should study each class of insects and learn how to 
exterminate the injurious kinds. These may be divided into 
biting insects and sucking insects. Biting insects can be 
poisoned. Sucking insects get their food from the juices of 
the plants and can be killed by stopping up their pores, or 
breathing spaces-. An insect breathes through openings in 
the sides of the abdomen, and hence cannot be drowned by 

putting its head under 
water. A soap or kero- 
sene emulsion is used as 
a spray to close the 
breathing pores. In 
general, the half-winged 
bugs are the sucking 
insects and the sheath- 
winged beetles are biting 
insects. The larvae, or 
'' worms, " of other insects, 
such as butterflies and 

Figure 108. Typical moth, the zebra cater- ,^^4.1^ ^ ^ ^C4- ^ ,^ 

pillar and moth. (Riley.) motlis, are often Very 




HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTURE 117 

injurious. Some of these '^baby" insects should be collected 
and a breeding cage made from a small wooden box with 
wire sides. Place soil in the bottom and keep it moist. 
Cocoons should be gathered in the fall and kept in a warm 
place. In this way the Ufe history of insects may be studied 
at first hand. The information gained should be of great 
value later. 

A collection of adult insects should be made for the 
school by the students, and home credit given for individual 
collections. Make a box the desired size, for example, six- 
teen by twenty-four inches, and have a glass cover to pre- 
vent moths from destroying the mounted specimens. 

COLLECTION OF WOODS 

Make a panel of thin wood and mount on it the different 
kinds of wood found in the district. There should be cross 
and longitudinal sections of each kind. The cross-section 
is made by sawing off a block from a small tree or bush, 
making it one half inch thick. It should show the bark and 
rings of growth. The longitudinal section is made by split- 
ting a block about four inches long and planing one surface 
smooth to show the grain of the wood. The sections should 
be made as nearly uniform in size as possible. This exercise 
is a valuable one, as the average person is unfamiliar with 
many of the common kinds of woods. 

STUDY OF BIRDS AND RODENTS 
One of the most interesting projects for which home 
credit should be given is a study of the common birds. 
This, being outdoor work, affords abundance of healthful 
exercise. A notebook should be a constant companion and, 
with a kodak, the field work is still more interesting. Notes 
should be written in permanent form into a ''Birds That I 
Know" booklet. 



118 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

Birds are classified as land, water, game and birds of 
prey. Some go south for the winter; others do not. Make 
a table of these migrations with dates in the spring and fall. 
Some birds are injurious, destroying grains, fruits, beneficial 
animals and other birds. Common ones are the English 
sparrow, the kingfisher and the crow. These should be 
destroyed. Other birds are highly beneficial and should be 
protected. Still others are prized for their songs and plum- 
age. Some of the beneficial birds are as follows: Robin, 
house wren, song sparrow, orchard oriole, bank swallow, 

barn swallow, blue jay, car- 
dinal, red- winged blackbird, 
red-headed woodpecker, kill- 
deer, quail, dove, screech owl, 
barn owl, buzzard, humming 
bird, cowbird and meadow 
lark. Nearly all these, as well 
as many others, can be observed 
Figure 109. Baltimore oriole. and studied in your Commun- 

ity. Birds feed chiefly upon 
insects and other injurious pests and hence should be pro- 
tected. State and national laws protect most of these birds, 
but you can help also. Bird houses to protect from cold 
and wet, crumbs thrown out when snow is on the ground 
and watching that cats and other animals do not molest the 
young birds just from the nest are some of the ways. 

While most birds are friends and should be protected, 
the rodents, or gnawing animals, are serious pests and should 
be exterminated. Their sharp, chisel-like teeth enable them 
to do much damage in orchard, garden and field. 

The common gray rabbit, or cotton-tail, by gnawing the 
bark and biting the shoots of fruit trees and shrubbery, 
probably does more damage in the winter than in summer. 




HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTURE 119 

As their natural enemies hawks, owls, foxes, wolves, etc., 
become fewer, the rabbits must be more carefully guarded 
against. Trees and shrubs should be protected by guards 
of burlap, heavy paper, etc., or by repellent washes, such as 
lime-sulphur solution. Rabbits may be poisoned by soak- 
ing the buds of young shoots in strychnine. Poisoned fruits 
and vegetables may also be used. Traps will help. 

Gophers do much damage in gardens and grain fields. The 
mounds show the presence of pocket gophers. The striped 
gopher eats insects as well as vegetable food and is, to that 
extent, beneficial. Gophers may be trapped or poisoned. 

Field mice do great damage to grain and other crops. 
Much of the inj uries to orchard trees in winter can be traced 
to those animals. Since several litters are produced during 
the season, they soon become very numerous, unless war is 
declared. Mice, as well as rats, may be poisoned or trapped. 

Moles feed largely on insects, but frequently become a 
garden pest on account of the burrows and mounds. They 
may be trapped or poisoned. 

Woodchucks, or ground hogs, should be trapped or pois- 
oned where they become pests. Most boys know how to 
use the trap effectively. 

STUDY OF MACHINERY 

The parts of some of the common kinds of farm machin- 
ery can be obtained for class work, and probably some worn- 
out machines can be secured for permanent use. What 
cannot be studied in school can be done on a nearby farm by 
the class or as individual work at home. Among the imple- 
ments that should be studied, and all the important parts 
named, are the following: Wagon, buggy, manure spreader, 
harrow, disk, cultivator, plow, drill, mower, rake and grain 
harvester. From implement dealers secure catalogs and 



120 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

repair lists for the machinery that is to be studied. Name 
all the important parts. After becoming familiar with the 
parts, take some machine apart, as a mower or a binder, and 
reassemble it. Some old machines should be kept in a shed at 
the school for this work. The tools needed are a few wrenches, 
a hammer, cold chisel, punch, screw driver and pliers. 

The parts for two common implements are here named. 
The common walking plow: Handles, beam, clevis, frog, 
heel, landside, wing, point, share, shin and moldboard. The 
grain binder: Bull wheel, grain wheel, axle, drive chain, 
crank shaft, countershaft, pitman, cutter bar, sickle, sec- 
tion, clips, dividers, platform canvas, elevator, reel, binder 
attachment, needle, packers, knotter, butter, twine box, 
tension, bundle carrier, levers, tongue and neck yoke. The 
parts for other machines may be learned from the lists of 
extras already suggested. 

STOCK AND GRAIN JUDGING 

Secure score cards free of charge from your experiment 
station and follow the directions there given for judging 
live stock. It is usually possible to get some stockman in 
the district to bring animals to the school for demonstration 
lessons in judging. This work should be supplemented by 
excursions to farms where well bred stock may be studied. 
Each student should fill out a score card for the most com- 
mon breeds of cattle, horses, hogs, sheep and poultry found 
in the district. If judging is not done at school, home credit 
should be given to students who do the work elsewhere. 
Score cards for grains may be obtained and judging done in 
a similar manner. 

APPLE TREE GRAFTING 

Save some apple seeds at home and in the fall plant them 
a few inches apart and about two inches deep in rows. The 



HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTURE 121 

seedlings from these will grow during the next season and 
be ready to graft the following winter. Get scions from the 
last season's growth of the variety you desire to have the 
tree. Cut off the top of the seedlings near the ground and 
graft the scions into them. In larger nurseries, the seedhngs 
are dug in fall, stored and grafted indoors in winter, only 
pieces of roots being used. Get a bulletin on grafting and 
learn how to make grafting wax and how to cut and place 
the scion and the stock so that the growing layer of the one 
will come in contact with the growing layer of the other 
— the most important factor in grafting. The wax is to 
bind the wound made in the operation of grafting and pro- 
tect it from disease. Apple seeds do not reproduce the same 
variety of apple tree as that on which they were grown, but 
any kind of apple seed may be used for growing the stock. 
Sometimes wild seedlings are used for the stock, as the tree 
will then be hardy and any variety can be grafted on it. 
Old trees are often ''top-worked"; that is, limbs are cut off 
and other varieties are grafted on. In this way, several 
varieties may be grown on one tree. Grafting is an interest- 
ing and useful art and one easily acquired by practice. 

STRAWBERRY RAISING 

This is one of the most profitable of the fruit projects. The 
strawberry is a universal favorite and can be grown in every 
country. Most varieties originated from a South American 
species, and a few from the wild strawberry of the United 
States. The plant thrives best in a rich, warm, sandy loam. 
A northern slope is best, as it retards the bloom in spring 
where there is danger of frost.:^ The. plot of ground should 
be heavily fertilized and plowed in the fall. It should be 
disked and thoroughly worked in the spring, making the 
soil loose on top and compact below. For northern climates 



122 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

spring planting is best, cultivating during the summer and 
allowing the runners to set during the fall before the cold 
weather. Fall planting is the usual method in the South 
where a crop is picked the next winter. One-year-old plants 
with white, fibrous roots are used for spring planting, and 
spring plants are used when they are planted in the fall. 
Old plants have dark roots and must be avoided for new 
beds. The plants should be set as soon as possible after 
they are taken from the ground. To prevent the roots from 
drying out they are often packed in a furrow. This operation 
is called ''heehng-in." If but a small bed is set out, the 
plants are best in hills where they can be hoed on all sides, 
but the matted rows should be used for larger patches so 
that they can be kept clean with horse cultivators. The 
runners should be trained with the rows so that dust and 
straw mulches may be kept between the rows. The latter 
is applied first as a winter protection for the plants and is 
removed in spring after all danger of frost is past. 

Diseases and insects that attack the plants and berries 
should be carefully studied and remedied. Rust on the 
leaves should be treated with Bordeaux mixture. On large 
fields, the leaves often are mowed and burned. Leaf roller may 
be destroyed by spraying with arsenate of lead. The best 
preventive of cutworms and white grubs is not to plant on 
sod. Cutworms may be killed by "planting" poisoned bait, 
but great care must be exerted to prevent chickens or ani- 
mals from getting it. White grubs cannot be reached by 
poisoning. When lack of vigor in plants indicates their 
presence, dig out and kill. 

The berries may be marketed fresh or canned, as may 
be more profitable in your community. Pint and quart 
boxes as well as the crates, for the fresh fruit, may be 
obtained in the "knock-down" and considerable saved, if 



HOME CREDIT WORK IN AGRICULTURE 123 

you put them together yourself. Berries to be shipped should 
be picked slightly greener than those for canning. They 
should be sorted before boxing and only sound plump berries 
put into the crates. For information on canning straw- 
berries, see description of outfit and method given in 
"Canning as Club Work/' Chapter VIII. 



CHAPTER VIII 

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 

Garden and canning clubs have been organized in nearly 
every state in the Union. The Federal Government has as- 
sisted the movement by sending experts to various parts of 
the country, and state departments of agriculture have co- 
operated through their extension work. Mr. T: A. Erickson, 
state leader of boys' and girls' club work for Minnesota, 
gives five reasons why every school district should have one 
or more of these clubs. They are well worth considering. 

1. To bring the school, home and farm into closer co- 
operation. 

2. To encourage boys and girls to assist their mothers 
in having a good supply of vegetables and fruit for the table, 
thus helping to reduce the cost of living, and to teach boys 
and girls how to save what is often otherwise wasted. 

3. To interest the boys and girls in gardening and in the 
best methods of growing the tomato and other standard 
vegetables. 

4. To teach the best methods of canning what is not 
used fresh. 

5. To provide a means by which boys and girls may 
earn some mone}^ and at the same time learn many valuable 
lessons. 

There are many fruits and vegetables that may be grown 
profitably by school boys in their home gardens. Tomatoes 
and strawberries are probably the most profitable, as there 
is always a ready market for these, and the surplus is easily 
canned. In fact, the tomato is popular on account of the 
canning that goes with that club work, as most of the prod- 

124 



CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 125 

uct is sold as canned goods. Many boys have entered the 
acre corn contests, and for that reason directions are given 
for doing that kind of club work. Sweet corn may be sub- 
stituted for the field corn, if preferred and part of the crop 
canned in the same manner as the tomatoes. In that case 
a full acre would not be required unless three or four boys 
formed a partnership and purchased a home canning outfit 
together. Garden peas have been grown and canned suc- 
cessfully by some of the clubs. 

Insects and weeds are deadly enemies of garden, field 
and orchard, and must be constant!}^ guarded against. Poor 
seed is also often responsible for small yields. It is necessary, 
therefore, that boys make a careful study of these pests and 
also learn how to test seeds for purity and germination, if 
they are to get the best results. Hence, these subjects are 
given as much consideration as space will permit. Consult 
bulletins and reference books for further information. 

ACRE-YIELD CORN PLOT 

If there is no acre-yield corn contest in your district, 
start one by growing an acre of corn yourself and getting as 
many of the other boys and girls of your school to enter as 
you can. Then affiliate with the extension division of your 
state experiment station. 

Select an acre from rich clover sod, if available, and, after 
applying a heavy coat of well rotted manure, plow it about 
six inches deep as early in the fall as possible. Disk and 
harrow often enough to kill the weeds during the fall and 
to conserve the moisture. Continue this harrowing in the 
spring several times before planting. As soon as danger of 
frost is past, plant only pure, ear-tested corn of the variety 
desired. Plant thick enough so that the plants can be 
thinned to four healthy stalks in a hill. Cultivate as often 



126 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



as possible during the growing season, especially after each 
rain. Be careful to do shallow cultivation after the first 
few times, or the roots will be cut and the plants injured. 
Check-row the corn land three feet six inches each way. 
Get directions from your state experiment station or county 
agent for husking and weighing the yield, and enter the state 
contest, if there is one. It is always advisable to compete 
whether you secure any prizes or not, as you will learn the 
best methods of corn culture for your locality. There are 
almost unlimited possibilities in corn growing. You will not 
find it difficult to grow more to the acre than is grown by 
most of the farmers in your community. Try it, as hundreds 
of other boys have done. Keep careful records and find 
the profit as well as the cost of production. 

POTATO YIELD CONTEST 

If an acre is too much for a potato yield contest, try a half 
or a fourth of an acre. Prepare the ground in the same 
manner as suggested for the corn. Select large, pure seed 
of the desired variety, and if a planter is not available use 
great care in planting by hand. Study bulletins for infor- 
mation on potato culture. Keep records of the receipts and 
expenditures and ascertain the cost of production. Show a 
sample at the school exhibition in the fall. The following 
score card is adapted from one issued by the extension 
division of the Minnesota College of Agriculture: 





Score Card for Potatoes. 

I. YIELD— 25 POINTS. 












No. of 
Points 


Things to Consider 


Value of 
Points 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


1 


Size of tubers 


10 




2 


Number in a hill 


10 












3 


Compactness in the hill 


5 














Total score 


25 













CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 



127 



EXPLANATION OF POINTS. 

I. Yield: Can the sample be relied upon to produce a large yield even in spite 
of unfavorable conditions? 

1. Size of Tubers. — Individual potatoes should be fairly large, indicating 
strength and constitution. 

2. Number in a Hill. — Hills with only a few good-sized potatoes are undesirable, 
also hills with a large number of under-sized potatoes. 

3. Compactness in the Hill. — Potatoes should be compact enough to gather 
easily and spread enough not to push out of the ground. 

II. SALABILITY— 25 POINTS. 



No. of 
Points 


Things to Consider 


Value of 
. Points 


' 


2 


3 


4 


6 


1 


Soundness 


10 






2 


Size 


5 












3 


Shape 


5 












4 


Skin 


5 














Total score 


25 













EXPLANATION OF POINTS. 

II. Salability. Are they what the market demands? Are they attractive in 
appearance? Will they bring a good price? 

1. Soundness. — Potatoes should be free from scab, rot, sunburn and bruises: 
also from damage due to bad handling. They should not be hollow. 

2. Size. — Potatoes should be large and of uniform size. 

3. Shape. — Tubers should be similar in shape and free from deformities and 
irregularities. 

4. Skin. — Skin should be firm, clean, bright and clear; uniform in color; a white 
skin, other things being equal, is preferable. 





III. CULINARY VALUE- 


-25 


POINTS 












No. of 
Points 


Things to Consider 


Value of 
Points 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


1 


Mealiness when boiled and baked 


5 












2 


Color when cooked 


5 












3 


Evenness in cooking 


5 













4 


Flavor 


5 










5 


Eyes 


5 














Total score 




25 













EXPLANATION OF POINTS. 

III. Culinary Value: 

1. Mealiness, when Boiled and Baked. — Potatoes that are irdmature, large 
and coarse, or with a thin, papery skin, and also those grown in heavy, wet clay 
soils, are liable to be soggy. 

2. Color when Cooked. — Potatoes should have uniform, white color through- 
out and should not turn yellow or dark upon standing. They should be free from 
brown or blackish spots, and from dark or reddish streaks, especially near the 
stem and under the eyes. 



128 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



3. Evenness in Cooking. — The different potatoes and parts of each potato 
should cook quickly and uniformly. Potatoes which are hard and watery when 
cooked, or those having hard, watery spots or with a tendency to be yellow, will 
cook unevenly. 

4. Flavor. — Potatoes should have a sweet, pleasing taste. Sunburned, sprouted 
immature potatoes, or those which have been exposed to light, will have a bad flavor. 

5. Eyes. — Deep or sunken eyes, and those protruding in clusters, are objec- 
tionable and cause a large loss in preparation for cooking. 





IV. TYPE AND PURITY- 


-25 POINTS 












No. of 
Points 


Things to Consider 


Value of 
Points 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


1 


Trueness to type 


15 












2 


Freedom from mixture 


10 














Total score 


25 













EXPLANATION OF POINTS. 



IV 



Type and Purity: 

1. Trueness to Type. — Indicated by the uniformity in size, shape, color and 
characteristics of the tubers. 

2. Freedom from Mixture. — A mixture of varieties is objectionable be- 
cause of difference in manner of growth, time of ripening and in keeping and storing 
qualities. 



SUMMARY OF POTATO SCORE. 












Points Considered 


Value of 
Points 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


I. Yield 


25 













II. Salability 


25 










III. Culinary value 


25 












IV. Type and purity 


25 














Final score 


100 









TOMATO CONTEST 

This has been one of the most popular and successful pro- 
jects in club work and, where conditions are favorable for 
tomato raising, it is strongly recommended. A century ago 
the tomato was rarely grown and then only as an ornamental 
plant. It was thought to be poisonous until its food value 
was discovered accidentally. The tomato is now one of the 
most valuable vegetable crops in the United States, and is 
extensively grown in almost every other country. No other 
fruit or vegetable is so much used for canning purposes. 



COXTEST."^ AND CLUB WORK 129 

The young tomato plant is very tender and must not be 
transplanted until all danger of frost is past. In the north- 
ern states this time will be about the middle of May. 
The plants must, therefore, be started in window boxes or 
hotbeds, and transplanted to the garden. Start them about 
six weeks before they are to be set out in the open. There are 
a great many varieties of tomatoes, but the large, late kinds 
are best for canning. The plants should be set in rows at 
least four feet apart to allow plenty of room for horse culti- 
vation and for the development of the plant. The distance 
apart in the row will depend upon the variety, as space 
enough for growth is necessary. Tomatoes thrive best in 
a rich, sandy soil and require plenty of warm weather 
during a long growing season. They must be kept free 
from weeds and insects and should not only be cultivated 
often, but kept hoed close to the plant. As soon as the young 
fruit is formed, the plant should be well supported by staking 
and tying or part of the crop will be spoiled on the damp 
ground. When time to ripen, cut away the surplus branches 
to let the sun in and allow the nourishment that would 
feed the branches to go to the green tomatoes. Early 
varieties may often be marketed fresh in small baskets at 
handsome profits, but the individual or the club should 
own a home canning outfit and can the main crop. Write to 
the national and state departments of agriculture for bulle- 
tins and information pertaining to the culture and canning 
of the tomato. Farmer's Bulletin No. 521 is good for the 
latter. 

CANNING AS CLUB WORK 

Canning has become very popular among both boys and 
girls during the last few years, both as home projects and as 
club work. As home work, it is usually done by the girls, but 
as club work, it is important for both girls and boys. Fruits, 



130 IXDLSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

vegetables and soups are canned and glass sealers and tin 
cans are used for containers. There is always a good de- 
mand for foods preserved in this way. The canning pro- 
jects supplement the fruit and vegetable gardening work and 
make all profitable. 

There are five general ways of canning food stuffs: the 
intermittent, or fractional-sterilization, method ; cold-water 
method; vacuum-seal method; hot-pack, or open-kettle, 
method; and the cold-pack method. 

The intermittent method is very effective, but requires 
three days to complete the process and is expensive in time 
and fuel. The cold-water method is used with sour food 
stuffs, such as gooseberries and rhubarb. The product is 
washed and sealed in cold water. In the vacuum-seal 
method a special can is required. It is successful, but has 
not yet come into general use. 

The hot-pack, or open-kettle, .method is still the common 
way of canning in most homes. The products are com- 
pletely cooked before packing in the cans and sealing. 
The method is a success for fruits, but is a failure for vege- 
tables, and it is always laborious. 

The cold-pack method is gradually displacing the hot- 
pack. It is the method generally recommended for the 
club work and home canning projects. By it, vegetables, 
as well as fruits, may be preserved. 

The equipment for canning by the cold-pack method 
need not be elaborate. While there are several kinds of 
commercial outfits on the market, their chief advantage 
over the homemade ones is their convenience. Homemade 
outfits may be constructed from washtubs, wash boilers, 
kettles, milk cans, pails, etc. Select an outfit that is deep 
enough for water to come one inch above the top of the tallest 
jar. This type of cooker is called a hot water bath outfit. 



COyTESTS AND CLUB WORK 



131 



It should be provided with handles, a false bottom and a tight 
cover. The false bottom is used to keep the containers off 
the bottom and thus allow water to come in contact with the 
cans or jars. A tinner can make a special false bottom, or 
one can be made at home by fastening thin boards to some 
cleats and submerging in the water. Wire handles may be 
fastened to the false bottom to Hft the entire lot of containers 
out when cooked, or the cans may be removed singly with 
tongs or other device. 




Figure 110. Growing vegetables for the canning contest. 

The various steps in cold-pack canning are, in order, as 
as follows: Select sound products; grade for ripeness, size 
and quality; wash clean; trim, if necessary; scald or iblanch 
to loosen the skin, reduce bulk and drive out objectionable 
acids; plunge into cold water immediately, or "cold dp," to 
separate the skin from the pulp, firm the texture, set the 
color and render packing easy; pack carefully and closely in 
glass jars or tin cans; add hot water for vegetables and hot 
water or hot syrup for fruits; place rubber and cover on jar 



132 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

and partially seal, or cap and tip tin cans at once; cook, or 
"process," immediately and according to time-table, but do 
not begin to count time until the water in the cooker is 
boiling. Scalding is immersing for one or two minutes in 
boiling water or live steam. It is used mostly for tree 
fruits and tomatoes. Blanching is parboiling. The prod- 
uct is left in the boiling water for a longer period than is 
necessary for scalding. The time varies from one to fifteen 
minutes, according to the nature of the product. 

The time necessary to cook the products will depend 
upon the kind of food stuff to be canned and the altitude. 
Water boils at 21 2°F. at sea level, but the boiling point de- 
creases as the altitude increases. It takes longer, therefore, 
to cook the products at high altitudes. In general, the time 
should be increased at the rate of about 25 per cent for each 
increase of 4,000 feet in altitude. In general, the time re- 
quired in the hot water bath outfit for soft fruits, such as 
berries, peaches, etc., at an altitude of 500 feet, is about 16 
minutes; for sour berry fruits, such as currants, gooseberries, 
etc., about 16 minutes; for hard fruits, such as apples, pears, 
etc., 20 minutes; for greens, such as spinach, Swiss chard, 
etc., blanch 15 or 20 minutes and sterilize 90 minutes; for 
roots and tubers, such as parsnips, sweet potatoes, etc., 90 
minutes; for tomatoes, 22 minutes; for sweet corn, 180 
minutes; for string beans and peas, 120 minutes; and for 
pumpkin and squash, 60 minutes. While overcooking makes 
the product look mushy, it is always better to overcook than 
to undercook, as in the latter case the food is likely 
to spoil. 

As soon as removed from the cooker, the glass containers 
should be tightly sealed, and placed bottom side up until 
cold. They should then be stored in a darkened place, as 
strong light fades the color. 



CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 



133 



The person or club doing the canning should send to the 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for the N R 
series, "Co-operative Extension Work in Agriculture and 
Home Economics," for complete recipes, tables, etc., neces- 
sary for a thorough understanding of the subject. It is 
suggested that, where club work is done at school or at home, 
a commercial canning outfit should be purchased. It could 
belong to the club or to the school. Many clubs have worked 
on the co-operative plan and sold enough canned products 
from the home gardens to bring large returns for the time 
and money invested. Special labels for club work can be 
obtained and should be used for the cans that are to be sold. 
The club brand is popular in many markets. 

POULTRY CONTEST 

A poultry contest may be made one of the most interest- 
ing of the club projects. Poultry raising is light work and 
is often regarded as being especially suitable and profitable 
for boys. Select the breed j^ou prefer and start with the 
best pure bred birds you can get. If j^ou cannot afford to 
buy hens, buy a setting of eggs. In any event, start slowh^ 




Figure 111. For pleasure and profit, pure bred poultry are preferable 



134 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

until you get used to the business, for poultry raising will 
require more careful attention and management than almost 
any of the other club projects. If you like it and are suc- 
cessful, then launch out as extensively as you desire. You 
should purchase a good poultry book and study it carefully 
to supplement the school work and learn the science as well 
as the art. If by proper housing and feeding j^ou can make 
a hen produce fift}^ eggs during the winter when the average 
hen does not lay, the value of the extra eggs at that time 
will represent your skill in managing the flock. Or, if the 
yearly production of the flock can be increased from 10 to 
25 per cent by eflficient management, which would not be a 
difficult matter with the average flock, it would mean the 
difference between a profit and a loss. 

Poultry raising is one of the important industries of the 
country, over twenty million eggs being produced annually. 
If you do not have a separate house for the flock, provide 
the best place that you can. Do not overcrowd. Fifty 
fowls are sufficient for one room of 300 square feet, floor 
space. Keep the floor, roosts and nests clean, and the 
poultry will be free from vermin. See that there is plenty 
of fresh air and they will not likely be sick. Feeding is the 
most difficult part of the whole business for the beginner. 
Study this phase until you understand what is meant by a 
balanced ration and work out one or more for your poultry. 
Do not overlook the grit and shells, green feeds and meat 
scraps during the winter months. Gather the eggs daily, 
keep them clean and grade them before marketing. As this 
topic is discussed in detail by the author in 'Industrial 
Booklets," a companion volume, it is not necessary to give 
more information here. 

The following ration from Cromwell's ''Agriculture and 
Life" was worked out by a young lady interested in poultry. 



CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 135 

It was the cheapest balanced ration she could find for 100 
Plymouth Rock hens and is an excellent one: 



Balanced Ration for Laying Hens 




Feed 


Digestible 
Dry Matter 


Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Cost 


Wheat, 8 pounds 

Corn, 15 pounds 


7.16 

12.75 

3.58 

2.82 
1.34 


.70 

1.01 

.43 

.87 
.90 


5.66 

10.83 

2.35 

1.77 

.47 


$ .15 
.15 


Oats, 4 pounds 

Milk, 30 pounds 

Aleat scraps, 1 14 pounds 


.06 
.06 
.03 


Standard for balanced ration 


27.65 
27 


3.91 
4 


23.08 
24 


$ .45 



The digestible dry matter and protein in this ration are 
very close to the standard for a balanced ration, while the 
carbohydrates are a little under. Try this on your hens 
and see if you can feed them for less than a half cent each a 
day. Work out other rations of your own and present them 
for class stud3^ When a hen is hatched from the shell, she 
has within her body the embryos of all the eggs she can ever 
lay. It is the business of the scientific poultry raiser to get 
the greatest number of these embryo eggs to develop and be 
laid during the first year of laying, as hens are seldom pro- 
fitable after the first year and should never be kept longer 
than two j^ears. Heredit}^ has a great deal to do with early 
laying and that is why it pays to raise pure bred stock. 
Proper feeding and housing, however, probably have more 
to do with rapid egg production than heredity. 

PIG CONTEST 

Among the most interesting projects of the club work is 
the pig contest. The county is frequently the unit of terri- 
tory for this project and both boys and girls enter the con- 
test. The object is to encourage the raising of pure bred 
stock and to teach the principles of stock raising. For 



136 INDUSTRIAL WORE FOR BOYS 

information on conducting a pig contest consult the state 
experiment station or a county agent. 

In one county in wliich tlie work was conducted by the 
county agent, or agricultural director, the local bankers 
supplied the capital for the contest. The Duroc-Jersey 
breed was decided upon and pure bred stock distributed to 
the boys and girls in the contest. The hogs were sold to 
the contestants at cost, most of the latter giving their notes 
without interest until the close of the contest in the fall. 
Definite rules were followed for feeding, care, weighing, etc., 
and the Fourth of Juty was announced as the date for all 
contestants to take the brood sows and litters to the county 
seat for preliminary judging. A great deal of interest was 
shown by the people of the community at this time. The 
winners at the preliminary contest entered the final contest 
in the fall. The contest was so successful that the same 
set of business men offered to finance a similar contest for 
pure bred dairy cattle. 

SAVINGS BANKS 

One of the best plans to encourage thrift and to teach the 
value of saving is the one now adopted by many schools of 
affiliating the school with one or more banks and allowing 
students to make weekly deposits. The teacher acts as local 
cashier and deposits the money at the banks when convenient. 
One day a week is known as banking day at school and 
pupils may deposit any amount from one cent up. They 
are given stamps as certificates. These stamps are fur- 
nished free by the banks. One school of thirty students 
recently deposited more than $100 in four months, most of 
which would have been spent needlessly, had they not 
become interested in the savings bank movement. The 
garden and club work make it possible for all young persons 



CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 137 

to earn money for themselves and there is all the more need 
of learning to save. Many look upon ''pin" money as some- 
thing with which to buy chewing gum and candy, if not 
something more injurious. Increasing the earning capacity 
is very important, but unless one learns to spend less than is 
earned, there can be no saving. The following ten thrift 
maxims have been selected from an Oregon pamphlet on 
"Industrial Club Work." They are proverbs well worth 
considering. 

"Fortune helps them that help themselves." 

"Punctuality is the soul of business." 

"Who will not keep a penny shall never have many." 

"Plow deep while sluggards sleep, and you shall have corn 
to sell and keep." 

"Industry is fortune's right hand and frugality her left." 

"He is poor whose expenses exceed his income." 

"Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, 
wealthy and wise." 

"He that will not stoop for a pin will never be worth a 
pound." 

"He that has but four, and spends five, has no need of a 
purse." 

"He that saves when he is young may spend when he is 
old." 

KEEPING ACCOUNTS 

As a supplement to the contest work and savings bank 
deposits, it is necessary to keep accounts. Not only is a 
knowledge of accounts advisable, but students should learn 
that no business can be done successfully without accounts. 
It is the unsystematic and unbusinesslike way in which most 
farming has been done that led to the belief that those who 
cannot do anything else can farm. Modern farming is a 



138 IXDfST/nAL WORK FOR BOYS 

highly compHcated business and those who are capable of 
managing it as such will be most successful. 

Accounts should not be difficult to any boy who can do 
ordinar}^ sixth grade arithmetic. There are a few simple 
things that must be remembered and always followed. An 
account is the name under which certain transactions are 
arranged according to whether they have been ' 'received" 
or "parted with." When an account receives something, the 
transaction is put on the left side, or ''debited;" when it 
parts with something, the transaction is put on the right side 
of the account, or "credited." For example, in the acre- 
yield corn contest two accounts must be kept, one for "Corn" 
and one for "Cash." If you pay out cash for seed or labor 
or any other expense of raising the corn, you would credit 
"Cash," as that account parted with something. You 
would also debit "Corn," as that account received the same 
amount. In Hke manner you would debit "Corn" for the 
value of all the labor of preparing the ground, seeding, cul- 
tivating and harvesting, and you would credit the same 
account for all corn fed or sold from your acre. If you re- 
ceived cash for part or all of it, that amount would be debited 
to the "Cash" account. Have a record sheet to keep the 
number of hours of horse labor as well as of your own, as all 
labor must be paid for in determining the cost of produc- 
tion. From this the general principles of accounts, or book- 
keeping, can be seen. 

Usually, accounts are kept by the "double entry" method; 
that is, the same amount that is debited to one account is 
credited to another account as illustrated above. Much of 
what used to be kept in the Day Book and Journal is now 
posted directly to the Ledger account, and card systems 
have taken place of the books to a large extent. Special 
record sheets for labor, milk and egg records, etc., can be 



COXTESTS AXD CLUB WORK 139 

secured free from the nearest state experiment station, and 
all you will need is a ledger or some ledger ruled sheets or 
cards which you can rule yourself. The school could have 
these cards made six by eight inches and ruled at a very 
small cost, if done by the thousand. The accounts here sug- 
gested are for the farm, but it should be remembered that 
the principles are the same for any business and, hence, they 
can be applied to the store or business office as well. 

A modern department store is a good example of the 
necessity of keeping accounts for each department instead 
of for only the business as a whole. The dry goods depart- 
ment may make money and the grocery department lose, 
or the drug department may show a profit while the meat 
department shows a loss at the end of the year. The general 
manager will then know that the grocery and meat depart- 
ments are a detriment to the business and the managers of 
these departments will be called in consultation. Better 
methods must be adopted and these departments made to 
show a profit or they will be discontinued. 

A farmer ma}^ keep enough records to know that his 
farm has been managed profitably rather than at a loss ; but, 
unless he keeps accounts for each department of his business, 
he does not know which ones have been most profitable. 
The hogs may produce a profit only to be ''eaten up" by 
the ''star boarders'' in the dairy herd, and the corn and hay 
may barely offset the loss on the wheat or other grain fields. 
Accounts for eacli of his "departments" will enable the 
farmer to send his poor cows to the butcher, to increase the 
live stock and crops that pay best and to improve the weak 
parts of his business or discontinue them altogether. It is 
the ability to keep such accounts and the foresight to see 
that it is worth while to do it that makes some farmers 
business men while others are not. 



140 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 

Every boy should supplement his school work in arith- 
metic and accounts by keeping the records of one or more 
departments of the farm or other business. These accounts 
should be checked up by the teacher and credit given when 
completed. Study the suggestive farm accounts here given 
and start some of your own as soon as you have done enough 
of the work in school to do it correctly. Remember that 
accuracy is the first requisite to success in account keeping, 
and neatness and rapidity come next. 

The inventory is the first step in farm accounts. What 
is known as a continued inventory is commonly kept as it 
contains space for the list of things on hand for more than 
one year. 'Some time between January 1 and April 1 is 
the best time to take ''stock" on the farm, as there is less 
produce to be listed then than at any other time of the year. 
It is not a busy season either and is, therefore, a good time 
to make out the annual statement. This statement is made 
from the accounts and inventory and shows the gain or loss 
on the year's business as well as the net present worth. 
The inventory is merely a list of the farm implements, live 
stock, produce on hand and any other items of value on the 
place. Sometimes a statement is combined with the in- 
ventory as shown in the suggestive inventory. The items 
shown in the inventory are ''Resources." Any notes to be 
paid or other obligations to be met are "Liabilities." Sub- 
tracting the liabilities from the resources will give the 
"Present Worth." The present worth is usually shown in 
the proprietor's account; but, if no accounts are kept, an 
inventory may be made to show this in a general way, and 
a farmer who can be pursuaded to keep an inventory will 
usually start the accounts later. 

In addition to the inventory the following accounts are 
suggested for the farm: Cash, Dairy or Live Stock, if the 



CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 



141 



dairy is not of sufficient importance to have a separate 
account, Hogs, Corn, Small Grains and what personal ac- 
counts are necessary. We shall suppose that a personal 
account is kept with the Hinckley Implement Company. 
As already intimated, the feed and labor records should be 
kept on special cards for that purpose. The improvements, 
depreciation and machinery and implements accounts can 
all be shown in the inventory. 



Suggestive Inventories and Accounts 

CONTINUED INVENTORIES 



Items 


Remarks 


Apr. 1. 1916 


Apr. 1, 1917 


Apr. 1, 1918 


Farm and Buildings.. 


160 Acres . 


$12,000.00 


$12,320.00 




Market value 

Market value 

Market value 

Market value 

Market value 

Market value 

Market value 

Total Produce 

Market value 

Market value 

Market value \ . 

Brood Sows 




Corn (Seed) 

Corn (Feed) 


30.00 
120.00 
110.00 

30.00 
125.00 
215.00 

25.00 


40.00 
135.00 
120.00 

36.00 
135.00 
250.00 

27.00 

743.00 






Oats (Feed) 

Wheat (Seed) 

Wheat (Sale) 

Hay (Feed) 




















655.00 








Horses 


650.00 
1,250.00 
235.00 
250.00 
125.00 


530.00 
1,375.00 
225.00 
280.00 
140.00 




Cows and Calves 




Steers 




Hogs 




Sheep 






Total Stock 

General purpose 

Less 10% depreeiat'n 






2,510.00 


2,550.00 








Poultry 

Mach. and Implemt's 


65.00 
625.00 

25.00 
125.00 


75.00 
562.50 

27.50 
187.17 






Cash 


Subject to check .... 
Miscellaneous 










840.00 


852.17 








Total Resources 


16,005.00 


16,465.17 






Unpaid 




Labor 


72.00 

125.15 

2,000.00 

2.197.15 


36.00 

74.18 

1.500.00 




Personal Accounts. . . 
Bills Payable 


Unpaid 










Total Liabilities 


1,610.18 












$13,807.85 


$14,854.99 









142 



INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS 



CASH 



Date 

4/6 


Brought Forward 

30 bu. wheat @ $1.10. 

2 hogs @ $20 

3 steers @ $65 

2 calves @ $10 

1 calf (Pure bred) 

75 bu. wheat @ $1.03 

Bal. on hand 


$125.00 

33.00 
40.00 
195 00 
20.00 
75.00 
77.25 


Date 

4/8 

4/21 

5/12 

6/22 

7/1 

7/22 

7/31 


Brought Forward 


$ 5.25 


4/24 
5/11 

5/28 
6/10 
7/20 


100 gal. gasoline 

100 ft. lumber 

Fence supplies 

Hou.se allow. (3 mo.) . . 

Machinery repairs .... 

Balance on hand. . . . 


11.00 
6.50 
68.75 
90.00 
13.65 
370.10 




$565.25 


$565.25 


7/31 


.$370.10 





HINCKLEY IMPLEMENT CO. 



Date 

4/1 

6/25 

11/18 



Brought Forward 

By check No 320. . 
By check No. 374 . . 
By check No. 463 . . 



$ 75.00 

50.00 

127.40 

$252.40 



Date 

4/1 

6/20 
9/15 



Brought Forward 



1 manure spreader, 
1 corn cultivator . . 
1 gang plow 



$ 35.40 

$120.00 
32.00 
65.00 

$252.40 



CORN 



Date 


Brought Forward 




Date 


Brought Forward 




4/1 


Val. 30 acres @ $75.. . 


$ 2250.00 


10/1 


Value land (same) .... 


$2,250.00 




Int. on invest. @ 6% . 


135.00 




1.500 bu. corn @ $.60.. 


900.00 




Seed, 4 bu. @ $2.50.. . 


10.00 




Value corn fodder. . . . 


60.00 




Value manure 


90.00 








10/1 


Labor and twine 

Depre. and int. mach. 

Incidentals 

Net Gain 


315.00 

15.00 

4.75 

390.25 










$3,210.10 


$3,210.00 



SMALL GRAIN 



Date 

4/1 



9/1 



Brought Forward 

Val. 60 acres @ $75. . 
Int. on invest. @ 6% 

Seed grain 

Val. manure 

Labor and twine . . . . 

Threshing 

Depre. and int. mach 

Incidentals 

Marketing 

Net Gain 



$4,500.00 
270.00 

75.00 
180.00 
188.00 

75.00 

20.00 
5.25 

15.00 
197.75 

$5,526.00 



Date 
9/1 



Brought Forward 

Value land (same) . . . 
1200 bu. oats @ $.40. . 
540 bu. wheat @ $.90. 
Value of straw 



$4,500.00 

480.00 

486.00 

60.00 



$5,526.00 



CONTESTS AND CLUB ^yORK 



143 



DAIRY 



Date 

4/1 



Brought Forward 

20 cows @ $60 

Int. on invest. ©6' 

Grain fed 

Roughage fed 

Pasturage 

Labor 

Cost of shelter 

Miscellaneous 

Net Gain 



$1,200.00 

72.00 

480.00 

300.00 

100.00 

240.00 

48.00 

9.25 

421.75 

$2,871.00 



Date 

4/1 



Brought Forward 

18 cows @ $56 

Sold 2 cows @ $48. . . . 

15 calves @ $5 

Skimmed milk for hogs 

5400 lbs. butter fat @ 

$ .28 



$1,008.00 

96.00 

75.00 

180.00 

1,512.00 



$2,871.00 







HOGS 






Date 
4/1 


Brought Forward 

10 sows @ $25 

Int. on invest. (S; 6' [ . 

Grain fed 

Other feed 


$ 250.00 

15.00 

540.00 

320.00 

80.00 

24.00 

396.00 


Date 
4/1 


Brought Forward 

10 sows at $22.50 

80hogs,20,0001bs.@7c 


$ 225.00 
1,400.00 




Labor 

Cost of shelter 

Net Gain 












$1,625.00 


$1,625.00 



INDUSTRIAL EXHIBIT 

Finally, as the grand climax of your industrial work, 
plan to have at least one industrial exhibit each year at the 
school and invite all the people of the community. Get 
the farmers' club, the creamery directors and other organiza- 
tions, as well as the school board, interested enough to offer 
small prizes to encourage the work. If no prizes are offered, 
have the exhibit anyway. The best plan is to have two — 
one in the spring just before school is out, and the other in 
the fall just before cold weather. In the spring, the best 
work of the year at school may be shown, not only the indus- 
trial work, but arithmetic, writing, language, etc. A spell- 
ing contest will add interest. In the fall, a ''harvest home 
festival" may be given at which will be exhibited the work 
done by the students during the summer. This will include 
garden products, corn, tomatoes, canning and other contest 
work, as well as any other special ''home credit" projects. 



144 INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BO\ii 

Premium List for Contest in Associated Schools 

PENMANSHIP 

1. Best individual specimen of writing, including movement 

exercises, small letters, capitals, figures and words . . . .75 .50 .25 

2. Best general display from all grades 75 .50 .25 

GEOGRAPHY 

1. Best relief map of Minnesota 75 .50 .25 

2. Best relief map of any continent 75 .50 .25 

3. Best drawn map of any kind, 75 .50 .25 

LANGUAGE 

1. Best booklet on any one of the following topics: Corn, 

Noxious Weeds, Vegetable Garden, Strawberries, Ap- 
ples, Poultry for Pleasure and Profit, Farm Animals, 

Bee Culture, Home Sanitation, The Typhoid Fly 75 .50 .25 

2. Best general display from all grades 75 .50 .25 

ARITHMETIC 

1. Best general display from all grades 75 .50 .25 

ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL WORK 

1. Best woven mat, yarn or cloth 75 .50 .25 

2. Best hammock , 75 .50 .25 

3. Best napkin ring 75 .50 .25 

4. Best raffia or reed mat 75 .50 .25 

5. Best raffia or reed basket 75 .50 .25 

6. Best yarn cap or bonnet 75 .50 .25 

7. Best clay exhibit . . 75 .50 .25 

8. Best general exhibit of industrial work 75 .50 .25 

SEWING 

1 . Best needlebook 50 .35 .25 

2. Best outing flannel holder 50 .35 .25 

3. Best gingham holder 50 .35 .25 

4. Best sleevelets 50 .35 .25 

5. Best cap 50 .35 .25 

6. Best hemstitched towel 75 .50 .25 

7. Best stockinet darning 75 .50 .25 

8. Best buttonholes 75 .50 .25 

9. Best gingham bag 75 .50 .25 

10. Best sewing apron 75 .50 .25 

11. Best hemmed patch 75 .50 .25 

12. Best three-cornered darn 75 .50 .25 

13. Best outing flannel nightgown 75 .50 .25 

14. Best overhand patch 75 .50 .25 

15. Best general exhibit of sewing 

Each article is to be made as directed in course of study 

MANUAL TRAINING 

1. Best match scratcher 50 .35 .25 

2. Best plant marker . 50 .35 .25 

3. Best salt box 75 .50 .25 

4. Best match box 75 • .50 .25 

5. Best other article 75 .50 .25 

6. Best composition on "Manual Training in the Rural 

School" 75 .50 .25 

7. Best general exhibit in manual training 1.00 



CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 145 



AGRICULTURE 

1. Corn judging contest 75 .50 .25 

2. Corn germinator with germinating corn ready to count. 

Must include report on test and opinion of seed by ex- 
hibitor 75 .50 .25 

3. Long and short splice (both must be included) 75 .50 .25 

4. Best general exhibit of rope work including knots and 

splices 75 .50 .25 

5. Best noxious weed seed exhibit to be selected and de- 

termined by the school 75 .50 .25 

6. Best general exhibit in agricultural work 1.00 

The greatest need of the nation in the immediate future 
is a generation of young men who are physically and morally 
strong, alive to their opportunities, industrious, thrifty, im- 
pressed with the dignity of labor and trained with a practical 
education that will enable them to ''make good." 



10— 



Plllllllllllllllillllllllll!llllll|l|||||||||itllilllll!|{|llllllllllllllllllll^ 

I Rural Education | 

I A. E. PICKARD I 

1 AN AID TO PRODUCTIVE TEACHING | 

m FOR NORMAL CLASSES, READING CIR- i 

= CLES, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS and 1 

m RURAL TEACHERS § 

M Adopted in Several States and Many Counties = 

M Industrial subjects are disputing place with academic = 

= even in the rural school. What shall be eliminated? What = 

M shall be taught? How? With what result? = 

1 Rural Education Tells What to Teach 1 

M Aside from the excellent arrangement of the program of M 

^ academic subjects and the full treatment of methods for ^ 

p teaching the same, Rural Education presents practical plans M 

s for including the required industrial work, viz: agriculture, ^ 

p manual training and domestic science. In addition it fully = 

M discusses the outside activities which enlarge the scope of the p 

= school and the community life and form a vital part of real p 

^ rural education. ^ 

M Rural Education Tells Hov*^ to Teach J 

M The co-ordination and arrangement of all these con- ^ 

= flicting courses is a problem which this book solves with M 

M satisfaction and success. Complete instruction is given for ^ 

^ the carrying out of the plans suggested and for the teaching = 

^ of each subject in detail. In the industrial subjects the actual M 

m work to be pursued is supplied. p 

p Rural Education Increases Teaching Efficiency M 

^ The definite outlines and methods which have been M 

= thoroly tested and found to be most successful, together with ^ 

M the enlarged outlook and inspiration which come with a view M 

= of new and greater possibilities, tend to increase efficiency in p 

= the schoolroom and to direct and elevate all rural life. = 

M 12mo., 430 pages. Illustrated. Price, $1.00 net M. 

I WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, | 

= SAINT PAUL, MINN. = 



;:i:iiiiiiiiiiiii[i!iiiiiiiiiii!i!i!iiiiiiiii!iiiiiii!iiii:iiiiiii:iiiu 

I INDUSTRIAL WORK f 
FOR GIRLS I 

I A. E. PICKARD I 

I AND P 

I MARIE C. HENEGREN I 

A COMPANION VOLUME TO 1 

"INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS" m 

'"pHIS volume is in keeping with the rapid strides that are 
-■- being made by industrial education. It is an up-to-date 
text for teaching industrial work 'to girls in rural and graded 
schools. With the exception of its companion volume, no other 
book is better designed for training the hand as well as the head. 



:CONTENTS= 



Chapter F— Course and Equipment. Purpose of Industrial Work, 
Preliminary Industrial Work, Second and Third Division Work. 

Chapter II— General Industrial Work. School Exercises in Weav- 
ing, Paper Folding and Construction, Raffia and Rattan Work, 
Modeling. 

Chapter III— Sewing in the Rural School. Equipment, Classifica- 
tion of Stitches, School Exercises, Home Projects. 

Chapter IV— Principles of Home Science. Food Defined. Food 
Principles, Preservation of Food, Planning Menus, Purpose and 
Principles of Cooking, Bread Making, Cake Making, Pie Making, 
Salads, Beverages, Experiments. 

Chapter V—The Hot Lunch. Equipment, General Directions, Sauces 
and Thickening for Cream Soups, Suggestive Dishes, Recipes. 

Chapter VI — Industrial Club Work. Tomato Contest, Home Can- 
ning, Bread Baking Contest. 

Chapter VII— Home Credit Exercises. The Flower Garden, House 
Plants, Bird Study, Bed Making, Preparing a Meal, Laying the 
Table, Serving Meals, Clearing Dining Table and Washing Dishes, 
Fly Control, Planning the Home, Ventilation, Savings Banks, 
Home Accounts, Industrial Exhibit. 

The book contains 62 illustrations, many of which are of 
sewing stitches and exercises. It contains all the practical 
features of a modern industrial course for girls. 

12mo., about ISO pages. Illustrated. Price, 40 cents net 

WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 

SAINT PAUL, MINN. 

llllllllllIII!IIIillIillI!IilllllillllIlllllI!llllM 



I INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS i 

m A. E. PICKARD m 

= A BOOK ON BOOKLETS— TEACHING THE EXPRESSION = 

= AND ILLUSTRATION OF INDUSTRIAL SUBJECTS THRU W. 

^ COMPOSITION AND ART ^ 

= Suitable for Grade Work in All Kinds of Schools ^ 

= This book on booklets contains a series of outlines on Agriculture, ^ 

= Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Home Economics, and other subjects. ^ 

= One topic — Poultry — is thoroly developed as an example of the way in = 

= which the work should be done. ^ 

^ The making of the booklets is a part of the language work. The ^ 

~ character of the subjects and the interest taken in their study vitalize ^ 

= the school life by supplying a wealth of pleasing material for discussion = 

= and composition. Different important results are secured by the use ^ 

= of these outlines. ^ 

s This investigational method of study is the most practical and = 

= pedagogical. _ = 

=: Topics of vital interest are impressed with their bearing on modern ^ 

^ activities of general concern, and pupils, under proper direction, ac- ^ 

= quire the habit of orderly and effective expression. The general char- ^ 

^ acter of the school work is elevated to a new plane. ^ 

= 12mo., 144 pages. Illustrated. Price 40 cents net = 

1 Webb Publishing Co. Saint Paul, Minn. 1 



I Rural School Lunch | 

i NELLIE WING FARNSWORTH 1 

= DIRECTOR OF HOME ECONOMICS ^ 

= STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, VALLEY CITY, N. D. ^ 

1 A TIMELY TREATMENT OF THIS TOPIC 1 

m FULL OF PRACTICAL VALUE FOR TEACHERS ^ 

= As a help to convenience, comfort, health, vigor of mind, education = 

= and culture, this little booklet brings its offering in the hope and belief = 

= that it may have a part in securing better conditions for multitudes who = 

= need and deserve them. = 

^ TOPICS TREATED BY THE AUTHOR ^ 

= Need of the School Lunch Advantages of the Lunch ^ 

= Necessary Equipment Teachers' Special Problems = 

= Methods of Maintenance Food Study ^ 

= Suitable Dishes Composition of Food Stuffs = 

^ Management Recipes = 

= Full details are given for the installation and conduct of the rural = 

= school lunch. By means of the tables and directions a teacher can = 

= easily work out the whole problem of not only the one dish but of a = 

= whole meal and of child nutrition in general. The plans embody the = 

= extensive experience of the author. = 

= Price in paper covers, illustrated, 25 cents. s 

= Webb Publishing Co. Saint Paul, Minn. s 



\ 



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